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INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 


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I'l.ATK    I.      TJtA>NHK«>KMA'nONH    OV     J  M 10    (JKLKJty    CATl' Itl'I  LLAll. 


liNSECTS  AND  INSFXTICIDES 


A  Practical  Manual 

CONCERNING 

Noxious  Insects  and  the   Methods  of 
Preventino"  Their  Injuries 


BY 

Clarence  ni.  weed,  n.  sc. 

I'lolosisor  ol"   /i)oU>,u.v  ami   Kiilomoli>L;.v,  Now  Hainpshiio  (."olh'ijo  of  Agriculture 
Hiul  tlio  MiMlianic  Arts 


ILLUSTRATED 


SaOONO     (I'iKX^  IS1£D)    tCDiTION 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDU   COMPANY 

185)5 


^5lo 


By  THE  Same  Author 


FUNGI   AND   FUNGICIDES 

A  Practical  Manual  Concei-ning  the  Fungous  Diseases  of 
Cultivated  Plants  and  the  Methods  of  Preventing  their 
Ravages.    Illustrated.    Price,  ,^1.00. 


SPRAYING  CROPS 

AVhy,  Wiien  and  How.  Illustrated.  Third  (Revised)  Edi- 
tion. Eleventh  Thousand.  130  pages.  Price,  25  cents. 
Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York,  N,  Y. 


TEN    NEW  ENGLAND    BLOSSOMS   AND  THEIR 
INSECT   VISITORS 

Illustrated.    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston  and  New  York 


Copyright  1891  and  1895 
3r  CLARENCE    M.   WEED 


PREFACE 


This  Yolume  has  been  prepai^ed  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  the  farmer,  the  fruit  grower,  the  floricultur- 
ist, and  the  housekeeper  with  a  coucise  account  of  the 
more  important  injurious  insects  with  which  they  have 
to  contend,  together  with  a  summary  of  the  latest 
knowledge  concerning  the  best  methods  of  jn^e venting  or 
counteracting  the  injuries  of  these  pests.  In  its  prepa- 
ration free  use  has  been  made  of  the  information  scat- 
tered through  the  literature  of  economic  entomology; 
and,  as  a  rule,  it  has  been  found  impracticable  to  give 
to  each  author  credit  for  first  working  out  the  life  his- 
tories of  the  various  species.  In  one  way  or  another  the 
contributions  of  nearly  every  American  economic  ento- 
mologist have  been  drawn  upon  ;  but  especial  mention 
should  be  made  of  the  help  obtained  from  the  publications 
of  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  recently  United  States  entomologist, 
whose  remarkable  investigations  during  the  last  quarter 
of  a  century  have  placed  him  foremost  among  the  world's 
economic  entomologists.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  aid  derived  from  the  writings  of  Messrs.  Bruner, 
Cook,  Comstock,  Fernald,  Fletcher,  Forbes,  Garman, 
Gillette,  Harvey,  Howard,  Lintner,  Osborn,  Packard, 
Saunders,  Slingerland,  and  many  others. 

The  illustrations  of  this  volume  have  also  been 
gleaned  from  various  sources.  I  am  under  obligations 
to  the  authorities  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
various  experiment  stations,  particularly  those  of  Illi- 
nois, Cornell  University,  Colorado,  Kentucky,  Nebraska, 
New  Jersey  and  Ohio, — for  the  privilege  of  getting  du- 
plicate  electrotypes.      The   authors   to   whom  each   of 


VI  lifSECTS   AHD   INSECTICIDES 

those  figures  that  did  not  first  appear  in  my  own  publi- 
cations should  be  credited,  are  indicated  in  the  following 
list: 

After  Eiley :— Plates  III,  IV,  VI,  XII,  and  figures 
1-4,  8,  15,  23-27,  36-45,  59,  61,  63,  67,  69,  70,  72,  74-76, 
78«,  79,  81-95,  97-103,  105,  119-121,  123,  124,  127-129, 
133-139,  141,  144,  146-149,  150,  155,  157-162,  164-166, 
168,  170,  3  72-176;  after  Lugger,  fig.  5;  after  Osborn, 
figs.  169-171;  after  Garman,  figs.  68,  71,  104;  after 
Bruner,  figs.  13,  14,  62,  80,  145  ;  after  Miss  Ormerod, 
fig.  167 ;  after  Howard,  figs.  46-50 ;  after  Comstock, 
fig.  141  ;  after  Lake,  plate  V,  fig.  28 ;  after  Goff,  fig. 
132;  after  Smith,  plate  XV,  figs.  9,  10,  122;  after 
Slingerland,  plates  VII,  X,  figs.  30-34,  52-57,  60,  77, 
78,  130,  131 ;  after  Marlatt,  fig.  29 ;  after  Saunders,  figs. 
51,  116 ;  after  Packard,  figs.  7,  22  ;  after  Lintner,  figs. 
16,  58 ;  after  Popenoe,  fig.  108 ;  after  Gillette,  plate 
VIII,  fig.  66 ;  after  Bailey,  fig.  19 ;  after  Galloway,  fig. 
18  ;  after  Forbes,  figs.  64,  65,  143,  152-154 ;  from  Insect 
Life,  figs.  12,  73 ;  after  Taschenberg,  plate  II,  figs. 
109-112. 

All  the  figures  are  natural  size  unless  otherwise 
stated,  and  wherever  a  straight  line  occurs  beside  a  mag- 
nified drawing,  it  represents  the  length  of  the  specimen 
figured. 

I  have  attempted  to  make  the  discussions  of  life 
histories  and  remedies  as  plain  and  simple  as  possible, 
omitting,  so  far  as  practicable,  all  technical  terms,  and 
have  included  only  such  details  as  are  necessary  to  a  prac- 
tical understanding  of  the  subjects  treated  of.  In  the 
present  second  edition  the  book  has  been  thoroughly 
revised  to  date,  and  the  latest  available  information 
incorporated. 

C.  M.  W. 

Nev)  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 
Durham,  New  Hampshire,  April,  1895. 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Introduction - 9 

PART  I 

Insects  Affecting  the  Larger  Fruits 

Apple 63    Plum 113 

Pear 94    Peach 121 

Cherry 128 

PART  II 

Insects  Affecting  Small  Fruits 

Strawberry 137    Raspberry  and  Blackberry 159 

Currants  and  Gooseberries 148    Grape 167 

PART  III 

Insects  affecting  Shade  Trees,  Ornamental  Plants,  and 

Flowers 

Shade  Trees 189    Rose 215 


Flowers 


218 


PART  IV 
lifSECTS  affecting  VEGETABLES 

Tomato 225  Bean  and  Pea 242 

Potato 228  Cabbage 245 

Celery 234  Onion 261 

Squash  and  Cucumber 235  Asparagus 263 

PART  V 

INSECTS  AFFECTING  CEREAL  AND  FORAGE  CROPS 

Indian  Corn 267    Clover 292 

Wheat 278    Grass  299 

PART  VI 

Insect  Pests  of  domestic  Animals  and  the  Household 

Insects  Affecting  Domestic  Animals 313 

Insect  Pests  of  the  Household 326 


INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 


INTPRODUCTIOK 


None  of  the  changes  modern  civilization  has  made 
upon  the  earth  is  more  evident  to  the  American  farmer 
than  that  of  the  increased  difficulty  of  saving  his  crops 
from  the  ravages  of  noxious  insects  and  parasitic  funiri. 
Many  of  us  have  heard  from  our  fathers  and  grand- 
fathers of  the  apples  which  once  grew  in  abundance 
in  yards  and  along  highways,  strangers  alike  to  the 
codling  moth,  maggot  or  scab  ;  the  luscious  peaches  free 
from  worms  and  rot;  the  plums  unmarked  by  the  cur- 
culio,  and  the  pears  that  had  yet  to  learn  the  secret  of 
becoming  dwarfed,  gnarly  and  cracked  ;  of  the  grapes 
that  knew  not  how  to  rot  and  the  potatoes  whose  leaves 
had  neither  been  blighted  nor  bitten  by  the  Colorado 
beetle.  Now  all  is  changed  :  every  crop  has  foes  that 
often  gather  the  lion's  share  of  the  harvest.  The  enemies 
have  come  from  the  north  and  the  south,  the  east  and 
the  west,  from  Europe  and  the  islands  of  the  sea,  and  in 
our  own  midst  they  have  flocked  from  the  forest  to  the 
field,  deserting  a  wild  plant  for  its  cultivated  congener 
or  changing  their  habits  to  conform  to  a  new  environ- 
ment. 

This  increase  of  noxious  insects,  however,  is  the 
natural  result  of  the  changed  conditions  of  things. 
Among  the  principal  factors  tending  toward  it  may  be 

1 


2  INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 

mentioned  (1)  the  massing  of  crops  in  limited  areas ; 

(2)  the  facilities  for  transporting  insects  long  distances 
by  vessels  and   railways  carrying  agricultural  products ; 

(3)  the  abandoned  farms  and  orchards  that  serve  as 
breeding  grounds;  and  (4)  the  destruction  of  forests 
and  the  cultivation  of  prairies. 

Considering  each  of  these  factors  briefly,  we  find 
that  the  tendency  of  the  first — that  of  the  massing  of 
crops  in  limited  areas — toward  increasing  onr  insect 
pests  rests  upon  the  biological  law  that  the  increase  of 
any  animal  is  limited  by  its  food  supply.  Under  the 
natural  conditions  existing  on  this  continent  before  the 
advent  of  the  white  man,  those  insects  which  fed  on  wild 
plants  had  as  a  rule  only  a  limited  food  supply.  The 
apple  maggot  or  raih'oad  worm  for  example  is  supposed 
to  have  bred  originally  in  the  wild  haws  of  the  woods. 
The  parent  fly  had  then  usually  to  find  here  and  there 
an  isolated  tree  bearing  the  fruit  in  which  it  deposited 
its  eggs.  Its  chances  of  being  caught  by  a  bird  or 
entrapped  in  a  spider's  web  while  on  this  search  were 
very  good,  so  that  the  scarcity  of  the  food  supply  not 
only  directly  limited  the  number  of  individuals  that 
could  be  produced,  but  by  being  scattered  it  increased 
the  chances  of  the  adult  insects  falling  a  prey  to  enemies. 
But  in  a  modern  apple  orchard  all  this  is  changed  :  the 
food  supply  is  almost  unlimited,  and  is  so  massed  together 
that  the  insect  runs  little  risk  in  passing  from  fruit  to 
fruit  or  from  tree  to  tree.  Hence  it  can  multiply  indefi- 
nitely unless  there  is  some  means  of  checking  it.  The 
same  line  of  reasoning  applies  to  a  large  proportion  of 
our  injurious  insects. 

We  are  indebted  to  our  commerce  on  sea  and  land 
for  many  of  the  most  noxious  insects.  Brought  to  our 
shores  from  Europe,  Asia  or  Australia  by  ships,  many  of 
these  pests  have  found  a  land  which  for  them  was  flow- 
ing with  milk  and  honey,  and  in  which  their  hereditary 


INTKODUCTIOJS^  3 

enemies  had  not  yet  gained  a  foothold.  Consequently 
they  have  multiplied  without  let  or  hindrance;  and  by 
natural  and  artificial  means — notably  the  railroad  trains — 
they  have  rapidly  overrun  the  country  of  their  adoption. 

The  abandoned  or  neglected  fields  and  orchards  all 
over  the  United  States  have  proven  a  prolific  breeding 
ground  for  many  insect  pests.  Too  often  the  efforts  of 
painstaking  farmers  have  been  rendered  unavailing  by 
the  proximity  of  such  sources  of  infection.  An  orchard 
that  has  outlived  its  usefulness  had  better  be  converted 
into  firewood  than  left  to  die  uncared  for. 

The  destruction  of  forests  has  compelled  certain  in- 
sects to  resort  to  cultivated  crops  for  subsistence ;  and  in 
some  cases  a  decided  change  in  feeding  habits  has  re- 
sulted. So  also  the  bringing  of  the  prairies  into  culti- 
vation has  caused  many  insects  which  originally  fed  on 
wild  grasses  to  resort  to  pastures  and  meadow  lands. 

The  operation  of  these  various  causes,  together  with 
the  enormous  powers  of  multiplication  possessed  by  the 
insects  themselves,  have  led  to  a  constantly  increasing 
injury  to  cultivated  crops,  until  to-day  these  tiny  foes 
exact  a  tribute  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  crop  products  of 
American  agriculture.  "  They  form  an  omnipresent  host 
of  taxgatherers,  taking  possession  of  the  farmer's  crops 
and  enforcing  their  onerous  demands  without  process  of 
law,  unless  preventive  measures  are  vigorously  prose- 
cuted. They  are  no  respecters  of  persons  :  like  the  rain 
they  fall  upon  the  fields  of  both  the  just  and  the  unjust. 

''The  authorities  best  able  to  judge  have  estimated 
the  annual  loss  in  the  United  States  due  to  these  little 
pests  at  nearly  half  a  billion  dollars.  Noxious  insects, 
according  to  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  recently  the  distinguished 
entomologist  of  our  National  Department  of  Agriculture, 
occasion  losses  in  the  United  States  which  are  'in  the 
aggregate  enormous,  and  have  been  variously  estimated 
at   from   $300,000,000   to   1400,000,000   annually.'     In 


4  INSECTS  AKD   INSECTICIDES 

single  states  and  single  seasons  tlie  damage  is  often 
frightful  in  extent.  During  some  of  the  great  chinch- 
bug  epidemics  the  loss  in  Illinois  occasioned  by  this  one 
insect  has  amounted  to  over  173,000,000  a  year;  and  in 
seasons  not  marked  by  an  outbreak  of  such  a  great  crop 
pest  the  injury  is  much  more  severe  than  is  ordinarily 
supposed.  The  official  entomologist  of  the  State  just 
named,  Professor  S.  A.  Forbes, — after  years  of  careful 
field  observation  and  statistical  study, — has  recently  ex- 
pressed his  belief  that  Hhe  insects  of  the  State  of 
Illinois  derive  as  large  a  profit  from  the  agriculture  of 
this  great  agricultural  State  as  do  the  farmers  them- 
selves.' "* 

Fortunately,  however,  there  is  an  extended  silver 
lining  to  this  dark  cloud  of  insect  injury.  If  these 
creatures  have  increased  on  every  hand,  our  knowledge 
of  methods  of  controlling  them  has  also  augmented  with 
the  passing  years.  Many  of  the  remedies  proposed  ten 
or  twenty  years  ago  seem  now  foolish  and  impracticable. 
Within  the  last  decade  especially  the  progress  has  been 
phenomenal.  It  has  been  shown  that  many  insects  can 
be  checkmated  by  a  proper  crop  rotation ;  that  the  nat- 
ural enemies  of  others  can  be  used  to  destroy  them  ;  and 
that  others  are  easily  killed  by  improved  insecticides. 
But  the  most  important  advance  has  been  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  spraying  machine,  an  apparatus  by  means  of 
which  insect-killing  substances  may  be  easily  and  rapidly 
distributed  over  the  surfaces  of  trees,  shrubs,  vines  and 
herbaceous  plants.  Its  introduction  into  American  hor- 
ticulture marks  an  advance  almost  as  important  as  was 
marked  by  the  advent  of  the  improved  cultivators  into 
our  agriculture.  Before  the  latter  were  introduced  the 
weeds  that  infest  the  soil  were  fought  by  the  hand  hoe, 
but  now  a  single  team  does  the  work  of  many  men.     In 

*C.  M.  Weed,  Popular  Science  Monthly,  March,  1893. 


INSECT  TRANSFORMATIONS  5 

the  same  way,  until  recently,  various  laborious  and  par- 
tially effective  methods  were  used  in  fighting  noxious 
insects  and  destructive  fungi;  but  now  many  foes  of 
both  these  classes  are  fought  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
force  pump  and  spray  nozzle,  and  every  season  adds 
others  to  the  list  of  those  against  which  this  method 
may  be  successfully  used.  With  a  large  class  of  farmers 
and  fruit  growers,  spraying  has  become  a  recognized 
part  of  the  season's  operations,  and  therein  lies  the  chief 
promise  of  the  method.  When  the  belief  becomes  gen- 
eral that  it  is  as  important  to  save  a  crop  from  destruction 
by  its  foes  as  it  is  to  produce  it ;  that  fighting  noxious 
worms  must  take  its  place  as  a  farm  process  by  the  side  of 
that  of  fighting  noxious  weeds ;  that  the  parasitic  plants 
which  absorb  the  vitality  of  leaf  and  fruit  are  as  danger- 
ous to  the  crop  as  the  plants  which  dispute  with  it  the 
possession  of  the  soil,  and  when  along  with  this  recog- 
nition there  is  placed  before  the  farming  community  a 
cheap  and  wholesale  method  of  preventing  the  injuries 
of  these  organisms, — then  the  vast  annual  loss  now  suf- 
fered because  of  insects  and  fungi  will  be  very  greatly 
lessened.  The  pages  which  follow  are  devoted  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  more  important  of  the  first  named  of 
these  enemies — the  noxious  insects — and  to  the  methods 
of  preventing  their  injuries. 

INSECT   TRANSFORMATIONS 

Insects  are  distinguished  from  related  animals  by 
having  three  pairs  of  feet,  fitted  for  locomotion,  at- 
tached to  a  body  divided  into  three  principal  parts — 
head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  A  majority  of  them  are 
also  characterized  by  undergoing  during  their  develop- 
ment a  series  of  well-marked  changes,  or  transforma- 
tions. Such  insects  exist  in  four  distinct  stages,  namely  : 
(1)  the  egg  ;  (2)  the  larva  or  caterpillar ;  (3)  the  pupa  or 
chrysalis ;  and  (4)  the  adult  or  imago.     As  an  example 


6  INSECTS   AIs^D   INSECTICIDES 

of  these  changes  we  may  take  the  celery  caterpillar,  the 
transformations  of  which  are  illustrated  in  Plate  I.  The 
adult  butterfly,  a  handsome,  black  creature,  with  yellow 
and  blue  markings  on  its  wings  (Plate  I,  e,  /),  deposits 
an  egg  on  the  underside  of  the  celery  leaf.  Qliis  egg 
{a)  is  a  small,  light  yellow  object,  nearly  spherical, 
though  slightly  flattened  where  it  is  attached  to  the  leaf. 
A  week  or  so  after  it  has  been  laid  there  hatches  from  it 
a  small  caterpillar  or  ^^worm,"  less  than  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  long,  black,  with  two  transverse  white  bands — one 
across  the  middle  of  the  body  and  the  other  at  the  pos- 
terior extremity — and  haying  the  back  roughened  with 
minute,  black,  projecting  points.  This  little  caterj^illar 
feeds  upon  the  celery  leaf,  and  within  a  few  days  so  in- 
creases in  size  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  shed  its  skin, 
or  molt.  For  this  purpose  the  skin  splits  along  the 
back  and  the  caterpillar  crawls  out,  clothed  in  a  new  skin 
that  had  been  formed  beneath  the  old  one.  The  color 
markings  are  somewhat  different  on  this  new  covering. 
The  caterpillar  continues  feeding  and  growing  for  several 
weeks,  casting  its  skin  at  occasional  intervals,  and  chang- 
ing considerably  in  color  and  markings.  When  full 
grown  it  is  of  the  form  and  size  indicated  at  b  on  the 
plate,  the  general  color  being  pale  green,  with  a  series  of 
transverse  bands  of  black  and  yellow  markings.  When 
irritated  it  thrusts  out,  from  a  slit  just  back  of  the  head, 
a  pair  of  peculiar  yellow  Y-shaped  organs,  that  emit  a 
disagreeable  odor.  These  organs  on  the  caterpillar  are 
represented  at  b,  and  at  c  is  shown  a  front  view  of  the 
head,  with  them  extended.  They  doubtless  serve  as  a 
protection  from  various  enemies. 

The  full-grown  caterpillar  becomes  restless,  and 
leaving  the  plant,  seeks  some  sheltered  situation  in  which 
to  pupate,  ^^  It  first  spins,"  says  Dr.  Harris,  *' a  little 
web  or  tuft  of  silk  against  the  surface  whereon  it  is  rest- 
mg,  and  entangles  the  hooks  of  its  hindmost  feet  in  it, 


INSECT   TRANSFORMATIONS 


CHIXCH  BUG. 

Magnified. 


SO  as  to  fix  them  securely  to  the  spot ;  it  then  proceeds 
to  make  a  loop,  or  girth,  of  many  silken  threads,  bent 
into  the  form  of  the  letter  U,  the  ends  of  which  are  fast- 
ened to  the  surface  on  which  it  rests 
on  each  side  of  the  middle  of  its  body  ; 
and  under  this,  when  finished,  it 
passes  its  head  and  gradually  works 
the  loop  over  its  back,  so  as  to  sup- 
port the  body  and  prevent  it  from 
falling  downwards.  Within  twenty- 
four  hours  after  it  has  taken  its  sta- 
tion, the  caterpillar  casts  off  its  cat- 
erpillar skin,  and  becomes  a  chrysalis, 
or  pupa  (Plate  I,  d )  of  a  pale  green, 
ocher-yellow,  or  ash-gray  color,  with 
two  short  ear-like  projections  above  fig.  i. 
the  head,  just  below  which,  on  the 
back,  IS  a  little  prominence  like  a  pug  nose.  The  chrys- 
alis hangs  in  the  same  way  as  the  caterpillar,  and  remains 
m  this  state  from  nine  to  fifteen  days,  according  to  tlie 

temperature. 
When  this  period 
is  terminated,  the 
skin  of  the  chrys- 
alis bursts  open, 
*and  the  butterfly 
issues  from  it, 
clings  to  the  empty 
shell  till  its 
c  r  a  m  p  e  d     and 

a,  b,  eggs ;  c,  e,f,  g,  young  droopiug     W  i  n  g  S 

Magnified.  have  extended  to 

their  full  dimen- 
sions, and  have  become  dried,  upon  which  it  flies  away  in 
pursuit  of  companions  and  food."  Besides  celery  this 
caterpillar  feeds  upon  parsley,  carrots,  and  related  plants. 


FIG.  2.     CHINCH  BUG 

bugs,  or  nmyphs 


8  IIH^SECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 

The  butterfly  is    known   to  entomologists  as   Papilio 
asterias. 

Insects  which  undergo  such  a  marked  series  of 
changes  as  those  above  described  are  said  to  have  complete 
transformations  to  distinguish  them  from  those  which 
do  not  undergo  so  marked  a  series  of  changes — those 
with  incomjjlete  transformations.  In  one  stage  of  exist- 
ence— that  of  the  chrysalis  or  pupa — insects  of  the  first 
class  take  no  food  and  are  unable  to  move  about.  With 
these,  also,  the  young  or  larva  differs  greatly  in  form 
and  appearance  from  the  adult.  Thus,  caterpillars  are 
very  unlike  the  butterflies  and  moths  into  which  they  de- 
velop, and  larval  honey  bees  differ  greatly  from  the 
adults ;  but  with  the  insects  of  the  second  class  this 
marked  difference  does  not  exist.  The  chinch  bug  fur- 
nishes a  good  illustration  of  these  transformations.  The 
adult  bug  (Fig.  1)  deposits  eggs  (Fig.  2,  a,  d)  about  the 
roots  of  grass  and  grain.  From  these  hatch  young  bugs 
(c)  that  do  not  differ  in  general  form  from  the  adults. 
They  suck  the  sap  from  various  plants  of  the  grass  fami- 
ly, gradually  increasing  in  size,  and  molting  at  inter- 
vals. In  a  few  weeks  they  become  nearly  full  grown, 
but  instead  of  changing  to  a  quiet  chrysalis  state,  they 
simply  molt  again  and  continue  feeding  as  before.  In 
these  early  stages,  which  correspond  to  the  larva  and 
chrysalis,  they  are  called  nymphs.  The  older  nymphs 
{g)  are  nearly  as  large  as  the  full-grown  bugs,  differing 
mainly  in  the  absence  of  wings.  In  about  a  week  they 
again  molt  and  come  forth  as  adult  bugs.  Grasshop- 
pers, crickets,  and  all  true  bugs,  undergo  these  incom- 
plete transformations. 

BITING  AND   SUCKING   INSECTS 

Insects  take  their  food  in  two  ways  :  some  insects 
bite,  others  suck.  The  former,  of  which  the  Colorado 
potato  beetle  is  an  example,  are  provided  with  jaws  by 


ENEMIES  OF  INJURIOUS  INSECTS 


which  they  can  gnaw  the  surface  of  the  food  plant.  The 
latter  have,  instead,  a  pointed,  tube-like  beak  which 
they  can  insert  into  the  tissues  of  their  host  plant,  and 
suck  out  the  sap. 

On  account  of  this  difference  in  feeding  habits  some 
insects  can  be  destroyed  by  coating  their  food  plants  with 
poison — the  Colorado  potato  beetle  for  example — while 
others,  like  the  plant  lice  or  chinch  bug,  must  be  treated 
with  some  insecticide  that  kills  by  contact. 

NATURAL  E:NEMIES   OF   INJURIOUS   INSECTS 

Injurious  insects  have  many  natural  enemies  to  con- 
tend with.  Among  the  larger  animals  they  are  preyed 
upon  by  the  *' fowls  of  the  air 
and  the  fish  of  the  sea ; "  frogs 
lick  them  up  with  their  viscid 
tongues,  and  toads  are  contin- 
ually sending  them  in  search 
of  the  mystic  jewel  within  theii* 
bodies,  while  snakes,  lizards, 
moles,  skunks,  and  a  host  of 
other  animals  are  their  con- 
stant enemies.  But  more  de- 
structive than  any  or  all  of 
these  are  the  foes  of  their  own 
class — the  predaceous  and  parasitic  insects. 

Predaceous  insects  are  those  which  attack  other  in- 
sects from  the  outside,  devouring  them  bodily,  or  suck- 
ing out  their  lifeblood.  The  handsome  little  lady 
beetles,  the  two-winged  robber  flies,  or  the  four-winged 
dragon  flies  furnish  good  examples  of  this  class.  So, 
also,  do  the  black  ground  beetles,  found  everywhere  un- 
der sticks  and  stones.  Some  of  the  largest  of  these 
are  called  caterpillar  hunters,  because  they  feed  upon 
cankerworms,  army  worms,  cutw^orms,  and  various 
other  insect  pests.     One  of  these  ground  beetles  is  shown 


FIG.  3.     GROUND  BEETLE. 

a,  larva ;  b,  beetle. 


10  IKSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

at  Fig.  3,  the  larva  being  represented  at  the  left,  and  the 
beetle  at  the  right.  Other  predaceous  insects  live  in 
ponds,  lakes  and  rivers,  devouring  mosquitoes  and  re- 
lated creatures,  while  still  others  burrow  through  the 
earth  and  devour  the  insects  found  therein. 

Parasitic  insects  differ  from  their  predaceous  cousins 
in  that  they  generally  develop  within  the  bodies  of  their 
victims  and  thus  destroy  them.  These,  also,  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous,  both  in  individuals  and  species.  A  good 
illustration  of  the  habits  of  this  class  is  found  in  the 
small,  four-winged,  black  fly  (shown  natural  size  and 
magnified  at  the  right  in  Fig.  4),  that  destroys  the  com- 
mon grape  caterpillar, 
an  insect  closely  related 
to  the  familiar  tomato 
worm  or  tobacco  worm. 
This  fly  deposits  a 
number  of  eggs  beneath 

FIG.  4.     CATERPILLAR  WITH   COCOONS  OF  ,.  ,•  .     ,,  pofpv. 

PARASITE.    Adult  parasite  at  light;       ^^^®    ^^^^    ^^    ^^^®    ^^^®^ 
latter  magnified.  pillar,    and    thcSC    CggS 

soon  hatch  into  minute  worms  or  maggots  that  absorb 
the  body  juices  of  the  worm  and  develop  at  its  expense. 
After  a  few  weeks  these  maggots  become  full  grown,  and 
burrow  their  way  out  through  the  skin  of  their  hapless 
and  helpless  host.  They  then  spin  their  white  silken 
cocoons  (Fig.  4)  upon  its  back.  Within  these  cocoons 
they  change  to  the  pupal  or  chrysalis  state.  About  two 
weeks  later  they  again  change,  and  the  legless  little  mag- 
gots become  transformed  into  neat  and  pretty  black  flies, 
with  four  wings  and  six  legs,  like  the  one  which  a  few 
weeks  before  deposited  in  the  caterpillar  the  eggs  from 
which  they  developed. 

The  borers  that  live  in  the  stems  of  plants  are  gen- 
erally attacked  by  parasites  that  attach  themselves  to 
the  skin  on  the  outside,  sucking  the  juices  through  the 
openings  they  make.     Such  are  called  external  j)arasites 


ENEMIES   OF   INJUEIOUS   INSECTS 


11 


to  distinguish  them  from  the  internal  parasites  Just  con- 
sidered. 

But  these  parasites  are  not  always  so  successful  as 
this,  for  they  frequently  furnish  a  partial  illustration  of 
the  truth  of  Dean  Swift's  oft-quoted  couplet: 

The  httle  fleas  that  do  us  tease 

Have  other  fleas  that  bite  'em, 
And  these  in  turn  have  other  fleas, 

And  so  it  goes  ad  infinitum. 

These  parasites  are  frequently  subject  to  the  attack 
of  a  still  smaller  parasite  which  destroys  them  as  they 
destroyed  their  host.  In  such 
cases  the  first-mentioned  spe- 
cies is  called  the  primary  par- 
asite, and  the  second  a  sec- 
ondary parasite.  There  are 
also  foes  of  another  kind  from 
which  injurious  insects  often 
suffer.  These  are  the  germs 
of  contagious  diseases,  of  a 
bacterial  or  fungous  nature. 
The  imported  cabbage  worm, 
for  example,  is  frequently  at- 
tacked by  a  bacterial  disease 
— a  sort  of  insect  cholera — 
that  destroys  it  in  great  num- 
bers. Similar  diseases  affect 
the  army  worm,  the  various 

cutworms,  and  many  other  ^^^^  chikch  bugs  affected 
insects.     Diseases  of  a  some-  by  fungus. 

what  different  nature,  due  to  certain  fungi  other  than 
bacteria,  also  attack  many  insects.  For  instance,  the 
chinch  bug  is  frequently  destro3^ed  in  great  numbers  by 
a  fungus  that  develops  on  the  surface  of  the  bug  as  a 
dense,  white  covering.  This  disease  is  illustrated  at 
Fig.  5 :  a  number  of  dead  bugs  are  shown  on  a  wheat 


12 


INSECTS    AND   INSECTICIDES 


stalk  on  the  left,  while  a  single  bug,  much  magnified, 
covered  with  the  fungus,  is  represented  at  the  right. 

THE   OKDERS   OF   INSECTS 

It  is  frequently  supj^osed  that  almost  any  sort  of 
bugs,  worms  or  spiders  that  fly  or  crawl  about  are  in- 
sects, but  correctly  speaking  a  large 
proportion  of  these  creatures  are  not 
insects  at  all.  For  example  a  spider 
is  not  an  insect.  Neither  are  the 
"thousand-legged  worms"  so  often 
found  under  boards.  In  both  these 
cases  the  creatures  have  too  many 
legs  to  belong  to  the  insect  class. 
Spiders  have  eight  legs,  and  the 
'^thousand  legs"  a  great  many  more, 
while  as  already  stated  true  insects 
possess  but  six.  Thus  by  looking  at 
Fig.  6  which  represents  a  harvest 
spider  or  "daddy  longlegs"  the 
reader  will  see  that  there  are  four 
legs  on  each  side,  making  eight  in 
FIG.  6.  HARVEST  SPIDER  all,  whllc  lu  Fig.  7  which  represents 
a  centipede  there  are  many  more.  But  each  of  the  fig- 
ures of  insects  shows  only  three  pairs  of  legs.  By  count- 
ing the  number  of  legs  one  can  generally  very  easily  tell 
whether  one  of  these  animals  is  an  insect  or  some  related 
creature. 

Insects  proper  are  divided  into  a  number  of  orders, 
the  more  important  of  which  ^re  briefly  described  in  the 
following  paragraphs. 

The  lowest  order  of  the  Hexapoda — the  class  of  true 
insects — is  the  Thysanura:  it  includes  the  peculiar 
minute  insects  commonly  known  as  springtails,  bristle- 
tails  and  fish  moths.  These  little  creatures  are  wingless 
and  undergo  no  transformations — never  getting  beyond 


THE   ORDERS   OF   lifSECTS  13 

the  larval  stage ;  some  species  have  an  aggregation  of 
simple  eyes  on  the  head,  but  very  few  have  compound 
eyes;  the  principal  mouth  parts  are  set  back  in  the  head. 
They  inhabit  a  great  variety  of  situations,  being  found 
abundantly  under  loose  bark  and  boards  lying  on  the 
ground.  Some  species,  like  the  fish  moth,  live  in 
houses  or  other  dry  places.  ^^Many  of  them  have  a 
curious  spring-like  appendage  attached  to  the  tail,  which 
is  bent  under  the  body,  and  by  means  of  which  the  in- 
sects are  enabled  to  make  leaps  that  are  enormous  com- 
pared    with     their 

small  size.     Otheri     ^ ^^^^ 

have    long    jointed  m7m'i//iiHi> 

filaments  at  the  end  fig.  i.  centipede. 

of  the  body  which  serve  no  purpose  that  we  know  any- 
thing about.  The  insects  are  rarely  seen  on  plants,  but 
where  an  overflow  occurs  milHons  of  them  are  sometimes 
found  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  on  which  they  hop 
about  as  easily  as  on  land.  Certain  others  are  some- 
times found  on  the  surface  of  snow,  in  midwinter.  The 
species  live  on  dead  or  decaying  vegetable  substances  and 
upon  fungi,  and  in  turn  furnish  food  for  a  great  many 
kinds  of  predaceous  forms."  (Smith.)  None  of  them 
are  of  material  economic  importance. 

The  next  higher  order  of  insects  is  called  the  Pseu- 
doneuroptera.  It  includes  the  dragon  flies.  May  flies, 
stone  flies  and  similar  forms.  These  insects  have  fonr 
membranous  net-veiiied  wings,  with  biting  mouth  parts 
and  incomplete  transformations.  The  life  history  of 
the  common  dragon  fly  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  biol- 
ogy of  this  group.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the  stems  or 
leaves  of  aquatic  pkants  by  the  adult  dragon  flies,  and 
soon  hatch  into  small  larvae  that  live  in  the  water,  prey- 
ing upon  mosquito  ^^ wrigglers"  and  other  aquatic  in- 
sects. They  are  provided  with  a  kind  of  trianguhir- 
shaped  jaw^,  with  a  sharp  pair  of  scissors  at  the  end  ; 


THE   ORDERS   OF   INSECTS  16 

this  is  called  the  mask.  It  is  usually  concealed  under 
the  head  of  the  larva,  but  when  an  insect  comes  within 
reach  it  is  suddenly  thrust  out,  grasps  the  victim  and 
returns  to  its  concealed  position.  The  larva  grows 
gradually,  and  finally  crawls  up  out  of  the  water  on 
some  reed,  Avhen  its  skin  splits  open  along  the  back  and 
the  adult  dragon  fly  appears.  These  insects  are  preda- 
ceous  in  all  stages  of  their  existence. 

The  order  of  insects  to  which  grasshoppers,  crick- 
ets, katydids  and  similar  creatures  belong  is  called  the 
Orthoptera,  a  W'Ord  meaning  straight-winged.  The 
insects  of  this  order  have  four  wings,  the  first  pair  being 
thickened,  and,  when  at  rest,  overlapping  the  second, 
which  are  folded  in  longitudinal  plaits.  The  transfor- 
mations are  incomplete,  the  young  resembling  the  adults 
in  general  appearance.  The  mouth  parts  are  formed  for 
biting  rather  than  sucking. 

The  first  important  family  of  the  Orthoptera  is  that 
of  the  cockroaches  {Blattidce).  There  are  many  species 
of  them,  the  most  abundant  probably  being  the  oriental 
cockroach  and  the  so-called  Croton  bug.  *' Cockroaches 
are  very  general  feeders  ;  they  destroy  nearly  all  forms 
of  provisions  and  injure  many  other  kinds  of  merchan- 
dise. They  often  deface  the  covers  of  cloth-bound 
books,  eating  blotches  upon  them  for  the  sake  of  the 
sizing  used  in  their  manufacture  ;  and  I  have  had  them 
eat  even  the  gum  from  postage  stamps.  They  thrive 
best  in  warm,  damp  situations  ;  in  dwellings  they  pre- 
fer the  kitchens  and  laundries,  and  the  neighborhood  of 
steam  and  water  pipes.  They  are  chiefly  nocturnal 
insects.  They  conceal  themselves  during  the  day  be- 
neath furniture  or  the  floors,  or  within  the  spaces  in  the 
walls  of  a  house ;  and  at  night  they  emerge  in  search  of 
food.  The  depressed  form  of  their  bodies  enables  them 
to  enter  small  cracks  in  the  floors  or  walls."* 

*Comstock. 


16 


IKSECTS  AND  Il^SECTICIDES 


After  the  cockroaches  follow  two  families  of  peculiar 
insects.  The  first  includes  the  soothsayers  or  praying 
mantes,  and  the  second  the  walking  sticks.     The  for- 


FIG.  8.     BIRD  GRASSHOPPER  OR  AMERICAN  LOCUST. 

mer  are  found  especially  in  warm  climates,  at  least  one 
species  occurring  commonly  in   our   Southern   States. 


FIG.  9.     A  KATYDID. 


The  walking  sticks  also  are  most  abundant  in  the  trop- 
ics, although  one  species  occurs  in  the  Northern  States. 


THE   ORDERS   OF   INSECTS 


17 


The  common  grasshoppers  or  locusts  belong  to  the 
family  Aci'ididcB,  a  large  group  containing  many  injuri- 
ous species.  The  hind  legs  are  long  and  stout,  fitting 
the  insect  for  jumping.  The  largest  species  inhabiting 
the  United  States  is  the  bird  grasshopper,  or  American 
locust,  represented  natural  size  in  Fig.  8.  This  hand- 
some insect  might  readily  be  mistaken  for  a  small  bird 
when  it  is  flying  at  a  distance.  It  inhabits  the  Southern 
States,  occasionally  occurring  as  far  north  as  Central 
Ohio.  Accounts  of  other  species  will  be  found  in  the 
later  pages  of  this  book. 

The  family  Locustidce  includes  the  long-horned 
grasshoppers  and  katydids.  These  insects  especially 
abound  during    the  late    summer   and    early  autumn 


FIG.  10.     THE  BLACK  CRICKET. 

months,  when  their  familiar  sounds  greet  us  on  every 
side.  Most  of  the  insects  of  this  family  are  green  in 
color,  to  correspond  with  the  herbage  among  which 
they  live. 

The  crickets  which  form   the  family  Gryllidce  are 
abundant  everywhere  in  fields  and  meadows,  and  prob- 
ably do  considerably  more  damage  tlian  they  are  usually 
credited   with.     In  the   Northern   States   the   common 
2 


18  Il^SECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

black  species  generally  winter  oyer  in  the  condition  of 
eggs  which  are  deposited  in  the  ground.  The  climbing 
or  tree  crickets  and  the  burrowing  or  mole  crickets  are 
abnormal  members  of  this  family. 

The  order  Hemiptera  includes  the  true  bugs.  They 
have  four  wings,  sucking  mouth  parts  and  incomplete 
transformations.  Here  belong  the  bark  lice,  the  aphides, 
the  tree  hop23ers,  the  various  plant  bugs  and  many 
others.  The  most  notorious  plant-destroying  species  of 
this  order  is  the  chinch  bug.  The  appearance  of  a  t3^p- 
ical  member  of  this  order  is  represented  in  Fig.  11. 

The  moths  and  butterflies  form  the  order  Lepidop- 
tera,  or  scaly-winged  insects.  Under  the  microscope 
the  wings  of  these  are  seen  to  be  cov- 
ered with  minute  scales  which  overlap 
one  another.  They  have  complete 
transformations  and,  in  the  adult  state, 
sucking  mouth  parts.  They  are  divided 
into  a  large  number  of  families,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

The  various  families  of  butterflies 
are  grouped  together  under  the  name  fig.  h. 

Rliopalocera.  The  adults  are  mostly  lesser  water  bug. 
day  fliers  and  the  larvae,  as  a  rule,  live  upon  green  vege- 
tation. The  life  history  of  the  asterias  butterfly  already 
described  is  typical  of  this  group. 

The  family  Sphingidce  includes  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  injurious  insects,  of  which  the  common  tomato 
worm  is  a  familiar  example.  The  adults  of  this  group 
are  large-bodied  moths,  having  loug  sucking  tubes,  and 
strong  wings  adapted  to  swift  flight.  They  fly  at  dusk, 
visiting  flowers  in  search  of  nectar,  and  depositing  eggs 
on  their  various  food  plants.  The  larvae  are  voracious, 
attaining  a  large  size,  and  pupating  in  a  hollow  cell  in 
the  soil. 


THE   OEDEES   OF   INSECTS  19 

The  family  of  silk-spinning  moths,  Bomhycidce,  in- 
cludes a  number  of  the  most  injurious  insects  affecting 
fruit  and  shade  trees.  The  larvae  of  this  group  are 
hairy  caterpillars,  which  feed  upon  leaves,  and  when 
full  grown  spin  silken  cocoons  for  protection  in  the 
pupal  state.  The  tent  caterpillar  of  the  apple  and  cherry, 
the  fall  webworm,  the  tussock  caterpillar,  the  cecropia 
and  polyphemus  moths  and  many  similar  insects  belong 
here. 

The  family  of  night-flying  moths  [NociuidcB)  in- 
cludes a  large  number  of  very  destructive  species.  The 
cutworms,  army  worm,  wheat-head  worm,  zebra  cater- 
pillar and  many  other  destructive  caterpillars  belong 
here.  In  general  the  larvae  have  smooth  skins,  and 
pupate  at  or  near  the  surface  of 'the  soil.  The  moths  are 
of  medium  size,  and  as  a  rule  fly  only  at  night. 

There  is  a  large  family  of  small  moths  called  Tor- 
tricidcB,  the  larvae  of  which  are  commonly  known  as 
leaf  rollers.  The  normal  habit  of  these  little  caterpillars 
is  to  feed  upon  the  surface  of  leaves,  which  they  roll 
into  a  protective  covering ;  sometimes  they  live  singly, 
and  sometimes  a  number  live  together  in  a  common 
nest.  These  caterpillars  attack  the  leaves  of  nearly  all 
our  fruit  and  ornamental  trees,  although  as  a  rule  they 
do  little  damage.  Some  s^^ecies,  like  the  codling  moth, 
feed  upon  fruit. 

The  family  of  looping  or  measuring  caterpillars, 
PhalaenidcBy  includes  the  destructive  cankerworm 
among  its  members.  Many  of  the  larvae  of  this  group 
so  closely  resemble  twigs  as  to  be  difficult  to  detect  in 
their  natural  habitat.  The  adult  moths  have  slender 
bodies  and  comparatively  large  wings,  although  some- 
times the  females  are  wingless. 

To  the  Dijttera  belong  the  two-winged  flies ;  the 
common  house  fly  is  an  excellent  example.  These  in- 
sects undergo  complete  transformations,  have  sucking 


20 


INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 


mouth  parts,  and  exhibit  a  great  variety  in  their  habits 
of  life.  Many  live  in  filth  of  various  kinds  ;  others  are 
aquatic  ;  others  develop")  in  plant  tissues,  and  yet  others 
are  parasitic  on  the  higher  or  lower  animals. 

The  Coleopte7'a  or  sheath-winged  insects  form  the 
immense  order  which  includes  the  beetles.  The  front 
wings  are  hardened  into  horny  cases 
which  cover  and  protect  the  mem- 
branous second  pair ;  the  mouth 
parts  are  formed  for  biting  and  the 
transformations  are  complete.  In  I 
the  larval  state  the  beetles  are  com- 
monly called  grubs.  Many  beetles 
are  destructive  to  vegetation,  while 
a  few  live  upon  decaying  organic 
matter  and  others  prey  upon  other 
insects.  Only  a  few  of  the  more 
important  families  can  here  be 
mentioned. 

The  tiger  beetles  form  a  distinct 
family  {Cecmdelidm)  the  members 
of  which  devour  many  other  insects, 
being  predaceous  in  both  the  larval 
and  adult  states.  These  beetles  are  no.  12.  tiger  beetle. 
often  brightly  colored  and  marked  Magnified, 

with  distinct  spots.  Their  form  when  magnified  is 
shown  in  Fig.  12.  They  are  abundant  in  sandy  situa- 
tions, and  may  commonly  be  seen  running  along  country 
roads  or  by  the  side  of  streams. 

The  ground  beetles  of  the  family  CaraUdcB  form 
one  of  the  largest  groups  of  this  order.  The  commonest 
species  of  the  family  are  the  elongate  black  beetles  found 
abundantly  under  boards  and  stones,  resembling  Fig.  3  h 
in  general  shape.  These  beetles  vary  much  in  habits: 
some  of  them,  especially  those  belonging  to  the  genus 
Harpalus  and  its  allies,  feed  largely  upon  vegetation  of 


THE    ORDERS   OF    INSECTS 


21 


various  kinds,  while  others,  particularly  those  of  the 
genus  Calosoma  and  nearly  related  genera,  are  strictly 
carnivorous,  being  excellent  examples  of  predaceous 
beetles. 

Many  insects  destructive  to  cultivated  crops  are 
found  in  the  great  family  of  leaf  beetles  or  Chrijsome- 
lidce,  which  is  said  to  include  more  than  ten  thousand 
described  species.  The  most  notorious  Amer- 
ican member  of  this  family  is  the  Colorado  t 
potato  beetle,  but  there  are  many  others,  such 
as  the  corn-root  worms,  the  various  flea  beetles,  1 
the  striped  cucumber  beetle,  the  asparagus 
beetle,  and  others  equally  injurious.  The 
larvse  of  this  group  vary  much  in  life  history 
and  appearance:  some  live  exposed  on  leaves,  others  are 
leaf  miners,  and  others  live  on  roots  under  ground. 

A  large  number  of  injurious  insects  are  found 
among  the  snout  beetles  of  the  family  Cumulionidce  and 
its  allies.  The  plum  and  apple 
curculios,  the  bean  and  pea  wee- 
vils, the  various  grain  weevils,  the 
corn  bill  bugs,  the  white-pine 
borer,  and  many  others  belong 
here.  The  larvae  of  these  insects 
are  usually  footless  grubs,  and 
have  varied  feeding  habits.  The 
adults  have  a  habit  of  dropping 
to  the  ground  when  disturbed, 
drawing  their  legs  against  the 
<L  o  body   and    remaining    quiet    for 

FIG.   14      CLICK  BEETLE  ^.  ^f     ^J^^^^     ^|^^g 

a,larvci(wire\vorm);6,beetle.    "^^^    ^^     ^  J 

Magnified.  rescmblc     particles    of     rubbish 

which  commonly  occur  on  the  soil  surface  and  thus  elude 
the  observation  of  birds  or  other  enemies. 

The  hard  cylindrical  yellow  worms  frequently  found 
in  the  soil  of  meadows  and  grainfields,  and  commonly 


22 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


called  '^  wire  worms/'  are  the  larvae  of  the  click  or  snap- 
ping beetles  of  the  family  ElateridcB.  These  larvae 
feed  iqjon  the  roots  of  plants  and  sometimes  do  serious 
damage  to  young  corn  and  wheat.  They  are  difficult  to 
combat  by  artificial  methods. 

The  common  May  beetle  or  June  bug  belongs  to  a 
family — Scaraheidce — Avhich  contains  many  other  well- 
known  depredators.  This  insect  is  the  fully  developed 
condition  of  the  white  grub  or  "grub worm"  so  often 
found  in  pasture  and  meadow  lands.  The  rose  beetle, 
the  spotted  grapevine  beetle,  the  "tumblebugs"  and 
many  others  belong  to  this  family. 

The  ants,  bees,  wasps,  sawflies  and  various  four- 
winged  parasites  combine  to  form  the  order  Hymenop' 


FIG.  15.    AN  ICHNEUMON  FLY.    a,  larva ;  c,  pupa ;  d,  adult,  magnified. 

tera.  These  insects  have  the  jaws  fitted  for  biting  while 
the  other  mouth  parts  are  fitted  for  sucking.  The  trans- 
formations are  complete,  and  there  are  with  few  excep- 
tions two  pairs  of  membranous  wings  having  compara- 
tively few  veins.  This  order  includes  some  highly 
beneficial  as  well  as  very  injurious  species. 


PEEVENTIKG    IIN^SECT   INJURIES  23 

Probably  the  most  important  group  of  parasitic 
insects  is  that  comprising  the  families  Braconid^  and 
Ichneumonidae  of  modern  entomologists.  These  little 
creatures  vary  greatly  in  life  habits,  but  a  large  propor- 
tion of  them  are  primary  parasites  of  injurious  insects. 
The  adults  are  four- winged  flies  with  slender  bodies  and 
antennae,  and  the  larvae  are  soft,  fleshy,  footless  grubs. 
Many  of  the  females  are  provided  with  long  exserted 
ovipositors,  with  which  they  can  reach  caterpillars 
hidden  in  trunks  of  trees  or  stems  of  herbaceous  plants. 
The  eggs  are  usually  deposited  on  or  in  the  body  of  the 
larva  selected  as  the  victim.  They  soon  hatch  into 
grubs  that  develop  at  the  expense  of  the  tissues  of  the 
hosts.  Some  of  the  grubs  are  internal  parasites,  living 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar,  while  otliers  attach 
themselves  externally.  In  eitlier  case  the  host  is 
doomed:  it  may  be  killed  long  before  it  gets  its  full 
larval  growth,  or  may  be  allowed  to  complete  that 
growth  and  even  spin  a  cocoon,  but  sooner  or  later  the 
parasites,  like  the  fox  in  the  fable,  will  gnaw  away  its 
vitals.  When  the  parasitic  grubs  become  fully  grown 
they  generally  spin  sliglit  silken  cocoons  within  which 
they  change  to  ])upa3  to  emerge  later  as  adult  flies. 

METHODS   OF   PREVENTING   INSECT   INJURIES 

The  methods  of  preventing  insect  injuries  may  con- 
veniently be  grouped  together  in  four  general  classes, 
VIZ.  :  (1)  Agricultural  Methods;  (2)  Mechanical  Methods; 
(3)  Use  of  Natural  Enemies ;  (4)  Insecticidal  Methods. 

The  chief  agricultural  methods  by  which  the  in- 
juries of  noxious  insects  may  be  prevented  are  the 
following: 

Clean  Culture.— There  is  probably  no  one  general 
method  by  which  the  farmer  can  do  more  to  protect  his 
crops  from  insect  injury  than  by  clean  culture.  A  large 
proportion  of  injurious  insects  pass  the   winter  under 


24  IKSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

rubbish  of  many  sorts  the  burning  of  which  late  in  fall 
will  lead  to  their  destruction.  If  the  rubbish  is  not 
allowed  to  accumulate  such  insects  will  have  less  chance 
to  find  suitable  quarters,  and  will  be  more  likely  to  perish 
from  the  effects  of  weather.  Clean  culture  also  reduces 
the  opportunity  of  feeding  and  breeding,  and  enables 
one  with  greater  certainty  of  success  to  apply  insecticides 
or  other  methods  of  destruction.  *^It  is  a  safe  rule," 
writes  Prof.  J.  B.  Smith,  ^'whenever  a  crop  is  gathered, 
to  clear  off  the  remnants  and  destroy  them  as  completely 
as  possible.  This  is  contrary  to  the  general  practice, 
which  is  to  get  the  crop  and  let  the  remnants  take  care  of 
themselves,  until  the  land  is  prepared  for  something 
else.  Melon,  citron,  squash,  cucumber  and  other  similar 
vines  are  simply  left  in  the  fields  after  the  crop  is  gath- 
ered, and  there  many  a  borer  and  many  a  striped  beetle 
comes  to  maturity  long  after  the  farmer  is  done  with  the 
plants.  The  rule  should  be  to  gather  and  burn,  either 
by  fire  or  in  the  manure  pit  with  lime. 

^^In  orchards,  this  recommendation  is  of  especial 
importance.  In  dead  wood,  on  the  tree  or  on  the 
ground,  many  species  hide  or  complete  their  develop- 
ment during  the  winter.  Every  dead  branch  and  twig 
should  be  cut,  and -with  the  other  rubbish  hauled  out 
and  burnt.  The  ashes  will  make  a  good  fertilizer. 
Eubbish  is  never  a  source  of  advantage,  and  may  be  the 
exact  contrary  in  many  instances.  Loose  bark  does  not 
help  a  tree  much,  while  it  does  afford  shelter  to  many 
hibernating  species.  Never  leave  an  old  wood  pile  in  or 
near  an  orchard,  especially  if  the  wood  is  of  the  same 
kind  as  the  orchard  trees.  Many  insects  breed  preferably 
in  dead  wood  ;  but  when  it  becomes  too  dry  or  too  rotten, 
they  have  a  sharp  instinct  that  enables  them  to  discover 
a  weak  or  sickly  tree,  and  they  attack  this  at  once  and 
ruin  it,  where  otherwise  it  might  recover.  Fallen  fruit 
should  always  be  destroyed.     Were  this  systematically 


PREVENTING   INSECT   INJURIES  25 

done,  there  would  soon  be  no  further  complaint  of  cur- 
culio,  and  less  of  codling  moth.  The  fruit  should  be 
fed  to  hogs,  buried  deeply,  burned  with  quicklime,  or 
disclosed  of  in  some  other  way  that  will  prevent  its 
maturing  the  contained  insects.  Field  and  orchard 
should  contain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  nothing  save  the 
crop,  and  when  no  crop  is  on  the  ground  there  should  be 
nothing  else — certainly  neither  rubbish  nor  remnants." 

Crop  Rotation. — By  a  thoroughgoing  system  of 
crop  rotation  the  multiplication  of  many  insect  pests  is 
effectually  j)revented.  This  process  may  act  by  starving 
the  pests  as  in  the  case  of  the  western  corn-root  worm, 
an  insect  which  deposits  eggs  in  the  cornfield  in  autumn, 
the  eggs  hatching  into  worms  the  following  spring.  If 
then  no  corn  is  present  the  worms  perish.  Or  the 
process  may  compel  the  insect  to  feed  upon  scattering 
weeds  and  grasses  as  in  the  case  of  the  corn-root  louse, 
thus  giving  a  decided  check  to  its  powers  of  multiplica- 
tion. There  are  many  and  cogent  reasons  for  crop 
rotation  besides  those  relating  to  insects,  and  good 
farmers  seldom  plant  a  given  crop  on  the  same  ground 
for  successive  years.  ^^Good  agriculture"  says  Professor 
S.  A.  Forbes  '^is  the  first  and  best  insecticide." 

Fall  Plowing. — The  injuries  of  many  insects  may 
largely  be  prevented  by  fall  ^ilowing.  The  pests  affect- 
ing the  roots  of  grasses  and  grains  are  largely  subject  to 
injury  by  this  method  which  exposes  them  in  one  stage 
or  another  to  the  attacks  of  birds  and  other  enemies,  as 
well  as  to  washing  and  freezing  by  the  elements  and  in- 
jury by  other  methods. 

Fallowing. — Summer  fallowing  may  sometimes  be 
used  to  advantage  in  starving  out  certain  pests,  although 
its  adoption  is  seldom  necessary. 

Refraining  from  Culture. — Sometimes  when  a 
crop  pest  of  the  first  class — such  as  the  chinch  bug — be- 
comes overwhelmingly  abundant  over  a  wide  area,  it  is 


26  I15-SECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

desirable  to  refrain  for  one  or  two  years  from  the  culture 
of  the  crops  upon  which  the  insect  develops.  The  suc- 
cessful carrying  out  of  this  method  involves  the  co-oper- 
ation of  the  farmers  of  a  large  district. 

Fertilizing. — It  is  a  well-established  general  rule 
that  a  plant  is  better  able  to  resist  insect  attack  when  it 
is  in  a  thrifty,  growing  condition  than  when  it  is  weak 
in  vitality.  Consequently  such  fertilization  as  will  bring 
about  the  healthiest  growth  of  the  crop  is  desirable. 
Some  fertilizers  also  have  a  direct  insecticidal  value  : 
kainit,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  tobacco  are  good  examples. 
Eoot  lice  are  effectually  destroyed  by  these  substances. 
Professor  J.  B,  Smith,  who  has  paid  special  attention  to 
the  insecticidal  value  of  fertilizers,  makes  this  recom- 
mendation :  'MYhenever  potash  is  to  be  put  on  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, use  it,  if  possible,  in  the  form  of  kainit  and  as  a 
top-dressing  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  pre2">ared  and  before 
the  crop  is  in  ;  use  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  also  as  a  top-dressing,  and  just  when  you  want 
your  plants  to  have  it." 

Selection  of  Resistant  Varieties. — It  has  long 
been  observed  that  some  varieties  of  fruits,  vegetables 
and  grains  are  more  subject  to  insect  attack  than  others. 
Consequently  other  things  being  equal  it  is  advisable  to 
select  such  varieties  for  planting. 

Modifying  the  Time  of  Planting. — Sometimes 
insect  attack  may  easily  be  2)revented  by  planting  the 
crop  either  earlier  or  later  than  the  customary  time.  In 
such  cases  a  careful  study  of-  the  limits  in  either  direc- 
tion may  well  be  made,  and  all  possible  advantage  taken 
of  the  facts. 

Modifying  the  Time  of  Harvesting.  —  Some 
species  of  insects  may  be  controlled  by  bringing  the  crop 
to  maturity  earlier  or  later  than  usual.  A  study  of  time 
limits  in  this  case  is  also  advisable  and  an  intelligent  pro- 
cedure based  upon  such  knowledge  may  be  adopted. 


MECHANICAL   METHODS  27 

Use  of  Food  Plants  as  Traps. — A  number  of  in- 
sect pests  may  be  best  destroyed  by  planting  a  favorite 
food  plant  near  the  crop  to  be  protected  :  the  insects 
will  concentrate  upon  this  and  may  then  be  destroyed. 
A  good  example  of  this  is  found  in  tlie  practice  of  sowing 
mustard  between  rows  of  cabbages  in  order  to  attract  the 
harlequin  bug  to  the  former  where  it  may  be  destroyed 
and  the  cabbages  thus  be  protected. 

MECIIA]!^-ICAL   METHODS 

The  more  important  mechanical  methods  of  con- 
trolling insect  depredations  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

Hand  Picking. — The  simplest  way  of  preventing 
injury  by  many  insects  is  to  pick  them  off  by  hand  and 
kill  them.  Large  caterpillars  like  the  tomato  worm  and 
other  sphinxes  are  generally  to  be  located  because  of  the 
foliage  devoured  and  are  easily  destroyed.  The  tent 
caterpillar  and  orchard  webworm  are  also  readily  picked 
off  when  the  insects  are  young  and  their  nests  small. 
In  the  garden  and  on  the  home  groun:ls  this  method 
should  be  constantly  in  use,  and  often  in  the  case  of  cer- 
tain crops  it  is  the  cheapest  and  most  effective  way  of 
ridding  larger  plantations  of  insect  enemies. 

Catching  by  Nets  or  other  Devices. —  It  is 
sometimes  practicable  to  catch  injurious  insects  by 
means  of  a  net  of  gauze  similar  to  the  collecting  net  of 
the  entomologist.  This  is  simply  a  gauze  bag  attached 
to  a  ring  on  the  end  of  a  handle.  It  has  been  recom- 
mended for  use  on  large  cabbage  plantations  in  catching 
the  early  brood  of  cabbage  butterflies  and  thus  prevent- 
ing deposition  of  eggs  that  would  hatch  into  cabbage 
worms.  Another  mechanical  device  that  has  proven 
useful  is  a  stiff  square  of  cardboard  smeared  on  each 
side  with  tar.  This  is  used  to  catch  the  leaf  hoppers 
affecting  grapevines — the   cards   being   waved  through 


28 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


Im  } 


the  air  in  which  the  insects  are  flying.  Another  me- 
chanical device  is  the  so-called  hopper  dozer,  by  means 
of  which  insects  affecting  grass  lands  are  destroyed. 
There  are  various  other  similar  mechanical  means  some- 
times used  in  insect  destruction. 

Excluding  by  Mechanical  Means. — Often  the 
most  practical  way  of  preventing  insect  injury  is  to  fence 
out  unwelcome  visitors  by  mechanical  devices.  The  bag- 
ging of  grapes  and  the  covering  of  young  cucurbitaceous 
vines  with  netting  are  good  examples  of  this  method. 

Catching  by  Jarring  and  Beating. — Insects  af- 
fecting the  fruit  or  foliage  of  trees  may  sometimes  be 
induced  to  fall  to  the  ground  by 
sudden  jars  of  the  trunk  or  larger 
branches.  They  may  then  be 
killed  in  various  ways.  One  of 
the  commonest  methods  is  to 
spread  beneath  the  tree  sheets  of 
cloth,  either  loose  upon  the  ground 
or  stretched  upon  various  kinds  of 
frames.  The  plum  curculio  is  the 
s])ecies  most  commonly  fought  in 
this  way.  Sometimes  the  foliage 
of  vines  may  be  beaten  to  dislodge 
insect  enemies. 

Attracting  to  Light. — 
Many  insects  fly  to  light ;  advan- 
tage is  sometimes  taken  of  this  to 
destroy  moths  or  other  parents  of 
noxious  insects.  This  may  be  no.  le.  lantekntkap. 
done  by  lighting  bonfires,  placing  a  lantern  over  a  tub  of 
water,  or  by  a  trap  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  16, 
the  pan  containing  water  w4th  a  film  of  kerosene  on  top. 

Trapping. — Insects  are  trapped  in  many  ways  by 
means  of  mechanical  devices.  Cutworms  and  squash 
bugs  will  congregate  under  chips  or  small  boards  placed 


THE    USE   OF   NATURAL   ENEMIES  29 

ill  infested  fields,  and  are  tlien  easily  killed.  Codling- 
moth  larva3  may  be  entrapped  under  boards  placed  loosely 
around  the  trunk  of  the  trees.  Chinch  bugs  and  army 
worms  may  sometimes  be  caught  in  holes  or  ditches  dug 
in  their  paths,  and  may  also  be  prevented  from  crossing 
into  fields  by  the  use  of  tar  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  line 
which  the  insects  cannot  cross.  Tarred  paper  may  also 
be  put  around  trees  to  prevent  the  ascent  of  pests  like 
the  cankerworm. 

Inundating. — In  the  case  of  certain  crops  it  is  pos- 
sible to  prevent  insect  injury  by  flooding  the  fiekl.  The 
cranberry  is  the  best  example  of  this.  It  is  a  simple 
and  efl&cient  method. 

THE    USE    OF    NATURAL   ENEMIES 

An  intelligent  understanding  of  the  use  of  natural 
enemies  in  keeping  in  check  injurious  insects  necessi- 
tates a  knowledge  of  certain  general  biological  laws 
which  govern  the  case.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
probably  the  one  which  is  commonly  stated  in  this  way : 
No  animal  can  multiply  beyond  the  limits  of  its  food 
supply.  The  trutli  of  this  is  obvious;  but  it  is  often 
overlooked  in  discussions  concerning  the  use  of  j^arasites 
in  subduing  insect  outbreaks.  It  is  so  important  that 
the  interrelations  of  host  and  parasite  be  clearly  under- 
stood that  I  quote  at  length  from  an  admirable  essay  by 
Professor  S.  A.  Forbes,  in  whicli  these  relations  under 
natural  conditions  are  discussed:* 

** Evidently  a  species  cannot  long  maintain  itself  in 
numbers  greater  than  can  find  sufficient  food,  year  after 
year.  If  it  is  a  plant-feeding  insect,  for  example,  it  will 
soon  dwindle  if  it  seriously  lessens  the  numbers  of  the 
plants  upon  which  it  feeds,  either  directly  by  eating 
them  up,  or  indirectly  by  so  weakening  them  that  they 

*On  Some  Interactions  of  Organisms,  BuUetin,  III,    State  Laboratory 
of  Natural  History,  I,  No.  3,  1880. 


30  INSECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 

labor  under  a  marked  disadvantage  in  the  struggle  with 
other  plants  for  foothold,  light,  air  and  food.  The 
interest  of  the  insect  is  therefore  identical  with  the  in- 
terest of  the  plant  it  feeds  upon.  Whatever  injuriously 
affects  the  latter  equally  injures  the  former,  and  what- 
ever favors  the  latter  equally  favors  the  former.  This 
must  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  extreme  normal  limit 
of  tlie  members  of  a  plant-feeding  species, — a  limit  such 
tliiit  its  depredations  shall  do  no  especial  harm  to  the 
plants  upon  which  it  depends  for  food,  but  shall  remove 
only  the  excess  of  foliage  or  fruit,  or  else  superfluous 
individuals  which  must  either  perish  otherwise,  if  not 
eaten,  or  surviving,  must  injure  their  species  by  over- 
crowding. If  the  plant  feeder  multiply  beyond  the 
above  limit,  evidently  the  diminution  of  the  food  supply 
will  soon  react  to  diminish  its  own  numbers  ;  a  counter 
reaction  will  then  take  place  in  favor  of  the  plant,  and 
so  on  through  an  oscillation  of  indefinite  continuance. 

^^On  the  other  hand,  the  reduction  of  the  plant- 
feeding  insect  below  the  normal  number  will  evidently 
injure  the  food  plant  by  preventing  a  reduction  of  its 
excess  of  growth  or  numbers,  and  will  also  set  up  an 
oscillation  like  the  preceding  except  that  the  steps  will 
be  taken  in  reverse  order. 

^^  I  next  point  out  the  fact  that  precisely  the  same 
reasoning  applies  to  predaceous  and  parasitic  insects. 
Their  interests,  also,  are  identical  with  the  interests  of 
the  species  they  parasitize  or  prey  ujoon.  A  diminution 
of  their  food  reacts  to  diminish  their  own  numbers. 
They  are  thus  vitally  interested  in  confining  their  depre- 
dations to  the  excess  of  individuals  produced,  or  to  re- 
dundant or  otherwise  unessential  structures.  It  is  only 
by  a  sort  of  unlucky  accident  that  a  destructive  sx)ecies 
really  injures  the  species  preyed  upon. 

''The  discussion  thus  far  has  affected  only  such 
organisms  as  are  confined  to  a  single  species.     It  remains 


THE   USE   OF   N^ATURAL   ENEMIES  31 

to  see  how  it  applies  to  such  as  have  several  sources  of 
support  open  to  them, — such,  for  instance,  as  feed  indif- 
ferently upon  several  plants  or  upon  a  variety  of  animals 
or  both.  Let  us  take,  first,  the  case  of  a  predaceous 
beetle  feeding  upon  a  variety  of  other  insects, — either 
indifferently  upon  wbatever  species  is  most  numerous  or 
most  accessible,  or  preferably  upon  certain  species,  re- 
sorting to  others  only  in  case  of  an  insufficiency  of  its 
favorite  food. 

"It  is  at  once  evident  that,  taking  its  food  insects 
as  a  unit,  the  same  reasoning  applies  as  if  it  were  re- 
stricted to  a  single  species  for  food  :  tliat  is,  it  is  inter- 
ested in  the  maintenance  of  these  food  species  at  the 
highest  number  consistent  with  the  general  conditions 
of  the  environment, — interested  to  confine  its  own  dep- 
redations to  that  surplus  of  its  food  which  would  other- 
wise perish  if  not  eaten, — interested,  therefore,  in  estab- 
lishing a  rate  of  reproduction  for  itself  which  will  not 
unduly  lessen  its  food  supply.  Its  interest  in  the  num- 
bers of  each  species  of  the  group  it  eats  will  evidently  be 
the  same  as  its  interest  in  the  group  as  a  whole,  since 
the  group  as  a  whole  can  be  kept  at  the  highest  number 
possible  only  by  keeping  each  species  at  the  highest 
number  possible." 

Professor  Forbes  goes  on  to  show  that  when  the 
rate  of  reproduction  of  a  parasite  is  relatively  too  great 
it  causes  fluctuations  in  numbers  which  are  injurious 
both  to  the  parasite  and  its  host,  and  concludes  that  in 
a  state  of  nature  "the  annihilation  of  all  the  established 
enemies  of  a  species  would,  as  a  rule,  have  no  effect  to 
increase  its  final  aA'erage  numbers." 

Such  being  the  case  where  man  has  not  interfered 
with  nature,  we  have  next  to  inquire  to  what  extent 
these  principles  hold  good  under  the  conditions  of  mod- 
ern agriculture,  for  those  insects  which  feed  upon  culti- 
vated crops.     Evidently  a  chief  element  of  disturbance 


32  IN"SECTS   AND  IIs'SECTlCIDES 

of  the  natural  order  here  lies  in  the  enormously  increased 
food  snpi^ly — an  increase  so  great  and  so  subject  to  mul- 
tiplication by  man  that  it  is  a  rare  event  for  an  insect  to 
reach  its  limit.  If  a  crop  in  a  given  locality  is  destroyed 
by  insects,  seed  from  another  region  is  usually  planted 
the  following  season,  so  that  while  under  natural  condi- 
tions the  insect  would  have  been  starved  out,  it  is  in- 
stead given  an  increased  opportunity  to  develop.  In 
consequence  of  this,  the  law  that  no  animal  can  multi- 
ply beyond  the  limits  of  its  food  supi^ly  becomes  practi- 
cally inoperative. 

Given  then  this  condition  of  a  plant-feeding  insect 
with  a  practically  unlimited  food  supply  to  draw  upon, 
we  have  next  to  consider  what  relations  it  would  sustain 
to  its  parasitic  enemies.  We  may  take  as  an  example 
the  common  tomato  sphinx  caterpillar  {PMegethontius 
celeus)  and  its  microgaster  j^arasite  {Ajxtnteles  congre- 
gatus).  The  latter  is  a  small,  black,  four-winged  fly, 
that  deposits  eggs  beneath  the  skin  of  the  tomato  worm, 
especially  along  the  back.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little 
maggots  that  absorb  the  body  juices  of  the  worm,  devel- 
oping at  its  expense  and  finally  coming  out  upon  its 
back  where  they  spin  white,  silken  cocoons,  within 
which  they  change  to  pupse.  Shortly  afterward  they 
again  change  to  flies,  that  gnaw  out  of  the  cocoons,  and 
fly  away  to  continue  the  work  of  destruction.  The  cat- 
erpillar lingers  a  while  in  a  half-dead  condition  and 
finally  dies. 

The  reproductive  rate  of  the  parasite  appears  to  be 
somewhat  greater  than  that  of  the  sphinx  ;  we  will  sup- 
pose it  to  be  one-third  greater — that,  for  example,  each 
sphinx  moth  deposits  forty  eggs  and  each  microgaster  fly 
sixty.  Suppose  that  in  a  given  locality  at  a  given  time, 
the  sphinx  moths  are  just  as  numerous  as  the  micro- 
gaster flies, — for  instance  that  there  are  one  hundred 
moths  and  one  hundred   flies.      Each  of   these  moths 


THE   USE   OF   KATURAL   ENEMIES  33 

deposits  on  the  tomato  plants  forty  eggs,  so  that  4,000 
caterpillars  will  shortly  liatch.  When  the  latter  are 
about  half -grown,  the  one  hundred  flies  apjjear  among 
them  and  each  deposit's,  in  a  smgle  caterjnllar,  sixty 
eggs ;  they  thus  doom  at  once  one  hundred  of  the  4,000 
caterpillars.  Consequently  there  go  into  the  pupal  state 
3,900  tomato  worms  to  emerge  as  moths  for  the  second 
generation.  There  will  appear  as  the  second  generation 
of  flies  6,000  specimens.  The  second  brood  of  moths 
will  bring  forth  156,000  (3,900x40)  caterpillars.  Six 
thousand  of  these  will  be  destroyed  by  the  microgasters, 
leaving  150,000  to  go  into  the  pupal  state  for  the  third 
generation  of  moths.  The  third  brood  of  parasites  will 
consist  of  360,000  individuals.  In  this  way  the  two 
species  continue  reproducing  for  several  succeeding  gen- 
erations, the  microgasters  constantly  gaining  on  their 
hosts,  until  finally  a  point  is  reached  wliere  there  are  as 
many  parasites  as  caterpillars.  There  will  then  evidently 
be  a  gi'eat  and  sudden  check  upon  the  latter  :  all  of 
those  which  the  parasites  are  able  to  find  being  destroyed, 
while  only  those  few  which  escape  parasitism  will  survive. 
In  the  next  succeeding  generation  there  will  be  very  few 
caterpillars  present — simply  the  progeny  of  the  survivors 
just  mentioned — while  the  parasites  will  be  sixty-fold 
more  numerous  than  before.  At  this  point,  evidently, 
all  the  parasites  except  a  very  few  would  die  off  without 
depositing  eggs,  so  that  there  would  be  a  great  and  sud- 
den decrease  in  their  numbers.  The  sphinx  caterpillars 
then  begin  another  period  of  increase.  In  other  words, 
while  the  law  that  no  species  can  multiply  beyond  the 
limits  of  its  food  supply  is  rendered  inoperative  in  the 
case  of  the  sphinx  caterpillar,  it  continues  to  act  in  the 
case  of  the  parasite,  because  man  does  not  artificially 
increase  the  food  supply  of  the  latter.  Man's  interposition 
evidently  has  the  effect  of  extending  and  intensifying  the 
oscillations  which  would  occur  under  natural  conditions. 
3 


34  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

From  this  view  of  tlie  case  it  becomes  evident  that 
we  cannot  hope  to  exterminate  any  species  of  noxious 
insects  by  means  of  its  parasites  alone.  On  the  whole, 
parasitic  and  predaceous  insects  are  of  immense  service 
to  man.  Without  them  many  plant-feeding  species 
would  multiply  to  such  an  extent  that  the  production  of 
certain  crops  would  require  vastly  more  effort  than  it 
does  now.  To  say,  as  has  been  said,  that  parasitic  and 
predaceous  insects  have  no  economic  value,  is  to  put  the 
case  too  strongly.  Take,  for  example,  two  crop  pests  of 
the  first  class — the  army  worm  and  the  Hessian  fly.  The 
history  of  a  century  shows  that  these  insects  fluctuate  in 
numbers  ;  that  there  are  periods  of  immunity  from  their 
attacks,  followed  by  seasons  when  they  are  overwhelm- 
ingly abundant.  It  is  universally  acknowledged  that  in 
the  case  of  the  Hessian  fly  this  periodicity  is  due  almost 
entirely  to  the  attacks  of  parasites,  and  in  the  case  of 
the  army  worm  to  the  attacks  of  parasites,  predaceous 
enemies  and  infectious  diseases.  Remove  these  checks 
and  what  would  be  the  result  ?  The  pests  would  keep 
up  to  the  limits  of  their  food  supply  and  would  necessi- 
tate the  abandonment  of  the  culture  of  the  crops  on 
which  they  feed.  Take  another  case.  Professor  J.  B. 
Smith  has  argued  that  '^  under  ordinary  conditions 
neither  parasites  nor  predaceous  insects  advantage  the 
farmer  in  the  least ; "  and  to  prove  it  cites  this  instance  : 
''Fifty  per  cent  of  the  cutworms  found  in  a  field  early 
in  the  season  may  prove  to  be  infested  by  parasites,  and 
none  of  the  specimens  so  infested  will  ever  change  to 
moths  that  will  reproduce  their  kind.  Half  of  the 
entire  brood  has  been  practically  destroyed  and  some- 
times even  a  much  larger  proportion;  but — and  the 
'but'  deserves  to  be  spelled  with  capitals — these  cut- 
worms will  not  be  destroyed  until  they  have  reached 
their  full  growth  and  have  done  all  the  damage  to  the 
farmer  that   they  could   have   done  had  they  not  been 


THE   USE   OF   NATUKAL   EJ^EMIES  35 

parasitized  at  all.  In  other  words,  the  fact  that  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  cutworms  in  his  field  are  infested  by  para- 
sites does  not  help  the  farmer  in  the  least."  But  obvi- 
ously it  does  help  the  farmer  very  greatly  the  next  season^ 
for  it  reduces  by  half  the  number  of  cutworms  he  will 
have  to  contend  with.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  cutw^orms 
fluctuate  in  numbers  in  a  way  quite  similar  to  the  army 
worm  and  the  fluctuations  are  largely  due  to  para- 
sitic enemies.  I  have  seen  regions  where  cutworms 
were  so  abundant  that  grainfields  were  literally  cut  off 
by  them  as  by  a  mowing  machine,  and  the  following 
season  the  worms  were  so  scarce  as  to  do  practically  no 
damage.  Even  the  plum  curculio  and  Colorado  potato 
beetle  are  sometimes  so  scarce  as  to  require  no  protection 
against  them,  and  the  presumption  is  in  favor  of  the 
parasites  as  tlie  cause  of  their  scarcity. 

But  Professor  Smith  is  right  in  saying  that  as  a 
general  rule  there  is  too  great  a  tendency  to  rely  upon 
natural  enemies  to  subdue  insect  attack.  It  is  nearly 
always  safer  to  adopt  effective  measures  in  keeping  pests 
in  clieck  than  to  trust  to  the  chance  of  their  natural 
enemies  subduing  them.  As  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley  has 
pointed  out,  ^'^  there  are  but  two  methods  by  which  these 
insect  friends  of  the  farmer  can  be  effectually  utilized  or 
encouraged,  as,  for  the  most  part,  they  perform  their 
work  unseen  and  unheeded  by  him,  and  are  practically 
beyond  his  control.  These  methods  consist  in  the  intel- 
ligent protection  of  those  species  which  already  exist  in 
a  given  locality,  and  in  the  introduction  of  desirable 
species  which  do  not  already  exist  there." 

Various  special  methods  of  protecting  existing  par- 
asites will  be  described  on  the  following  pages.  In  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  it  frequently  happens  that  some 
outbreaks  of  insects — plant  lice,  for  example — which 
have  reached  a  point  where  the  enemies  are  overwhelm- 
ingly abundant  had  better  not  be  treated  with  insecticides, 


36  IKSECTS   AND   Il!5^SECTICIDES 

because  in  such  cases  the  enemies  will  check  the  out- 
break and  not  destroy  themselves. 

The  second  method  of  utilizing  parasitic  and  preda- 
ceous  enemies  of  injurious  insects — that  of  introducing 
them  to  new  localities — can  sometimes  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  certain  exceptional  cases,  but  its  practical  value 
has  been  greatly  overestimated  in  recent  years  by  the 
general  j)ublic.  The  most  remarkable  instance  of  the 
use  of  this  method  is  the  famous  one  in  which  the 
Vedalia  lady  beetle  was  introduced  into  California  to 
subdue  the  fluted  scale  [Icerya  imrcliasi).  This  latter 
insect  was  introduced  from  Australia  into  California. 
It  there  soon  became  a  very  troublesome  pest  because  of 
*'its  ability  to  survive  for  long  periods  without  food,  to 
thrive  upon  a  great  variety  of  plants  and  to  move  about 
throughout  most  of  its  life."  In  its  native  home  this 
pest  was  to  a  great  extent  kept  in  check  by  its  natural 
enemies;  in  America  it  multijolied  enormously  with  no 
checks  upon  its  increase.  Through  the  efforts  of  Dr. 
Riley  expert  entomologists  were  sent  to  Australia  to 
study  the  enemies  of  the  fluted  scale,  and  to  send  to 
California  such  of  these  as  might  prove  useful.  Various 
enemies  were  found  and  forwarded,  but  "one  of  them, 
Vedalia  cardinalis,  proved  so  effective  as  to  throw  the 
others  entirely  into  the  shade  and  to  render  their  services 
really  unnecessary.  It  has,  so  far,  not  been  known  to 
prey  upon  any  other  insect,  and  it  breeds  with  surprising 
rapidity,  occupying  less  than  thirty  days  from  the  laying 
of  the  eggs  until  the  adults  again  appear.  These  facts 
account  for  its  exceptionally  rapid  work,  for,  in  point  of 
fact,  within  a  year  and  a  half  of  its  first  introduction  it 
had  practically  cleared  off  the  fluted  scale  throughout 
the  infested  region."* 

But  the  very  fact  that  this  lady  beetle  feeds  only  on 

*Riley.  ,  •  .  - 


THE    USE   OF   CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES  37 

the  fluted  scale  will  in  the  course  of  time  render  it  less 
useful  than  if  it  had  a  slightly  wider  range  of  food.  For 
it  will  necessitate  a  fluctuation  in  the  numbers  of  para- 
site and  host  according  to  the  principle  already  ex- 
plained ;  unless,  indeed,  and  this  seems  a  probable  con- 
tingency, the  lady  beetles  learn  to  feed  upon  other  insects 
and  thus  greatly  extend  the  limits  of  their  food  supply. 
One  of  the  most  promising  methods  of  ntilizing 
parasites  is  that  of  their  distribution  from  a  section  in 
which  an  outbreak  of  a  crop  pest  is  reaching  its  maxi- 
mum, and  in  which,  consequently,  the  parasites  are 
abundant,  to  a  region  where  the  pest  is  on  the  increase 
and  threatening  an  outbreak.  Such  disseminations 
would  naturally  be  brought  about  through  the  official 
entomologists  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country. 

THE   USE   OF   C0:N^TAGI0US    DISEASES 

It  has  long  been  known  that  at  certain  periods  in 
the  fluctuations  of  such  insects  as  the  army  worm  and 
chinch  bug  fatal  maladies  often  appear  among  them, 
destroying  them  with  great  rapidity.  The  idea  of  culti- 
vating the  germs  of  these  diseases  and  then  distributing 
them  in  regions  where  the  diseases  have  not  yet  appeared 
was  first  scientifically  elaborated  by  Professor  S.  A. 
Forbes,  State  Entomologist  of  Illinois,  who  has  devoted 
years  of  the  most  painstaking  investigation  to  contagious 
insect  diseases.  The  subject  has  also  been  taken  up  by 
Professor  F.  H.  Snow  of  the  University  of  Kansas,  who 
has  conducted  extensive  field  experiments  in  the  practical 
utilization  of  disease  germs.  Without  attempting  an 
adequate  discussion  of  the  method,  it  may  here  be  said 
that  in  general  two  classes  of  these  diseases  are  recog- 
nized— one  being  due  to  the  presence  of  bacteria  of  vari- 
ous supposed  species,  and  the  other  to  certain  fungi  be- 
longing to  Entomopthora,  Sporotrichum  and  other 
genera. 


THE    USE   OF   INSECTICIDES  39 

The  metliod  of  utilizing  these  diseases  is  to  cultivate 
artificially  the  organism  causing  the  malady,  and  then  to 
distribute  it  in  the  field.  In  the  case  of  the  chinch  bug 
the  fungus  is  sometimes  cultivated  by  putting  some  of 
the  dead  bugs  in  a  box  or  vessel  with  a  lot  of  living 
healthy  ones  :  the  latter  become  infected  and  are  then 
scattered  in  the  fields  infested  by  chinch  bugs.  Another 
and  probably  better  method  is  to  cultivate  the  germs  in 
some  nutrient  solution  on  a  large  scale,  and  then  to 
spray  or  otherwise  distribute  it  over  the  infested  fields. 

There  seems  to  be  no  question  but  that  while  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  from  this  method  have  been  greatly 
overestimated  in  the  popular  mind,  it  is  capable  of 
much  good  under  favorable  conditions.  The  chief 
trouble  found  as  yet  has  been  due  to  weather  unfavorable 
to  the  development  of  the  disease-producing  organism. 

THE   USE   OF   IXSECTICIDES 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  most  effective 
method  of  preventing  insect  injuries  lies  in  the  intelli- 
gent application  of  insecticides,  or  insect-kilhng  sub- 
stances. These  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  classes  : 
(1)  internal  jioisons,  or  those  which  take  effect  by  being 
eaten  along  with  the  ordinary  food  of  the  insect ;  and  (2). 
external  irritants,  or  those  which  act  from  the  outside — 
closing  the  breathing  pores,  or  causing  death  by  irrita- 
tion of  the  skin.  Besides  these,  however,  various  other 
substances  are  used  in  preventing  insect  attack — keeping 
the  pests  away  because  of  offensive  odors,  or  acting 
simply  as  mechanical  barriers. 

The  most  important  insecticides  are  the  poisons. 
Of  these  the  most  popular  are  the  various  combinations 
of  arsenic  known  as  Paris  green,  London  purple,  arse- 
nate of  lead,  and  a  large  number  of  patent  insecticides 
sold  under  various  names. 

Paris  Green  is  a  chemical  combination  of  arsenic 


40  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

and  copper,  called  aceto-arsenite  of  copper.  It  contains 
usually  from  fifty-five  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  arsenic,  and 
retails  at  about  thirty  cents  per  pound.  It  is  practically 
insoluble  in  water,  and  may  be  applied  either  dry  or  wet. 
In  the  former  case  for  certain  crops  it  should  be  well 
mixed  with  some  fine  powder  as  a  diluent :  plaster,  air- 
slaked  lime,  flour,  road  dust,  and  finely  sifted  wood 
ashes,  all  answer  the  purpose  fairly  well,  though  lime  or 
plaster  is  usually. preferable.  The  proportion  of  poison 
to  diluent  varies  greatly  with  different  users — one  part 
poison  to  twenty,  and  even  fifty,  of  diluent,  will  usually 
be  effective,  if  the  mixing  be  thoroughly  done.  Paris 
green  is  almost  insoluble  in  water ;  but  there  is  often  a 
small  percentage  of  it  soluble,  and  to  prevent  the  injury 
this  may  do  to  foliage  it  pays  to  add  a  little  fresh  lime- 
water  (made  by  slaking  fresh  lime  in  water)  to  the  spray- 
ing mixture.  It  may  be  used  in  spraying  potatoes,  apple 
trees,  and  most  shade  trees,  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five 
ounces  to  fifty  gallons  of  water.  On  stone  fruits,  espe- 
cially peach,  use  half  this  strength,  unless  lime  is  added. 
In  preparing,  a  good  plan  is  to  dish  out  the  poison,  then 
add  to  it  something  more  than  double  the  amount  of 
freshly  slaked  lime ;  then  make  into  a  paste  with  a  little 
water  and  add  to  the  whole  amount  of  water,  straining 
through  some  suitable  sieve. 

Paris  green  is  a  heavy  powder  and  does  not  stay 
long  in  suspension  ;  hence  it  must  be  kept  constantly 
stirred  to  prevent  its  settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel. 
Buy  it  in  as  finely  powdered  condition  as  possible,  and 
get  it  of  a  reliable  dealer.  It  can  be  purchased  in  cans 
holding  fourteen  pounds  or  more,  at  twenty  cents  per 
pound,  and  ordinarily  retails  at  a  slightly  higher  figure. 

The  true  Paris  green  (the  copper  aceto-arsenite)  is 
known  in  the  arts  as  Schweinfurt  green,  Emerald  green, 
Mitis  green  and  French  green.  ^'Scheele's  green,  the 
simple  arsenite  of  copper,  is  frequently  confounded  with 


THE   USE   OF   IJS'SECTICIDES  41 

Paris  green,  but  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its 
duller  color  and  the  entire  absence  of  acetic  acid,  which 
is  a  characteristic  constituent  of  a  genuine  Paris  green."* 
London  Purple  is  a  by-product  obtained  in  the 
manufacture  of  aniline  dyes.  It  generally  contains 
nearly  the  same  percentage  of  arsenic  as  Paris  green, 
which,  however,  is  often  in  a  more  soluble  form,  and 
consequently  it  is  more  liable  to  injure  foliage  than  is 
Paris  green.  It  is  a  finer  powder  than  the  green,  and 
hence  remains  in  suspension  in  water  much  longer. 
It  is  also  cheaper,  retailing  at  about  fifteen  cents  per 
pound,  and  in  large  quantities  is  obtainable  at  ten  cents 
per  pound.  It  may  be  used  in  the  same  way — as  a  pow- 
der or  in  water  suspension — and  the  proportions  given 
above  answer  very  well  for  it.  Before  using,  the  soluble 
arsenic  should  be  made  insoluble  by  the  addition  of  lime- 
water.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  do  this  is  to  add  three- 
fourths  of  a  pound  of  lime  to  a  pound  of  London  jDurple, 
and  thoroughly  mix  them  in  a  gallon  of  hot  water,  allow- 
ing the  mixture  to  stand  two  hours,  and  keeping  it  hot 
during  this  time  if  it  can  be  conveniently  done.  In  this 
way  the  soluble  arsenic  will  be  rendered  insoluble,  and 
the  London  purple  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five 
ounces  to  a  barrel  of  water.  Or  the  London  purple  may 
be  added  to  the  water  as  usual,  and  about  two  gallons  of 
fresh  milk  of  lime  (made  by  slaking  lime  in  water) 
strained  into  the  barrel.  If  allowed  to  stand  an  hour, 
all  the  soluble  arsenic  is  more  likely  to  be  rendered  in- 
soluble than  if  used  at  once.  After  London  purple  has 
been  thus  treated  with  lime  it  can  safely  be  applied  to 
tender  foliage  at  a  strength  of  four  ounces  to  fifty  gal- 
lons of  water.  Both  London  purple  and  Paris  green 
may  be  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  (four  ounces 
poison  to  fifty  gallons  mixture),  as  described  more  fully 

*  H.  H.  Ross. 


43  INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

on  page  51,  and  then  the  treatment  with  lime  is  not 
necessary. 

Arsenate  of  Lead. — This  substance  has  recently 
been  used  successfully  by  the  Massachusetts  Gypsy  Moth 
Commission  for  the  destruction  of  caterpillars.  Its 
chief  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  can  be  applied  in 
heavy  doses  to  tender  fohage  without  injury  to  the  lat- 
ter. Mr.  0.  L.  Marlatt  says  :  ''  This  insecticide  is  pre- 
pared by  combining,  approximately,  three  parts  of  arse- 
nate of  soda  with  seven  parts  of  acetate  of  lead.  These 
substances  unite  chemically  and  form  a  fine,  white  pow- 
der which  remains  easily  in  suspension.  As  now  used 
by  the  Commission,  ten  pounds  of  the  arsenate  of  lead 
are  used  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  of  water, 
two  quarts  of  glucose  being  added  to  cause  the  insecti- 
cide to  adhere  longer  to  the  leaves.  Prof.  Fernald's  ex- 
perience and  our  own  would  indicate  that  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-half  this  strength  will  answer  for  most 
larvaB — the  larvae  of  the  gypsy  moth  proving  to  be  un- 
usually resistant  to  the  action  of  jDoisons.  The  arsenate 
of  lead  costs  the  Commission  seven  cents  a  pound  whole- 
sale, and  glucose  sixteen  dollars  a  barrel." 

White  Arsenic  is  sometimes  recommended  as  an 
insecticide  but,  fortunately,  is  rarely  used.  It  is  much 
more  dangerous  to  have  around  than  the  highly  colored 
insecticides,  because  of  the  danger  of  mistaking  it  for 
edible  products ;  and  unless  applied  as  soon  as  it  is 
mixed  with  water  it  is  very  liable  to  burn  the  foliage. 

The  principal  substances  used  for  killing  insects  by 
contact  are  the  following  : 

Hellebore  is  a  powder  made  of  the  roots  of  a  plant 
called  white  hellebore  (  Veratru7n  album).  It  is  a  vege- 
table poison,  but  much  less  dangerous  than  the  mineral 
arsenical  poisons,  and  kills  both  by  contact  and  by  being 
eaten.  It  may  be  applied  as  a  dry  powder  or  in  water, 
an  ounce  to  three  gallons.     It  retails  at  about  twenty- 


THE    USE    OF    INSECTICIDES  43 

.five  cents  per  pound,  and  is  especially  excellent  in  de- 
stroying the  imported  currant  worm. 

Pyrethrum  is  an  insecticide  of  recent  introduc- 
tion, made  from  the  powdered  flowers  of  plants  of  the  ge- 
nus Pyrethrum.  There  are  three  principal  brands  upon 
the  market,  known  as  Persian  insect  powder,  Dalmatian 
insect  ponder,  and  Buhach — the  latter  being  a  California 
product.  The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  use  of  pyrethrum 
has  been  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  pure,  fresh  arti- 
cle. After  long  exposure  to  air  it  seems  to  lose  much  of 
its  insecticidal  value.  Hence  dealers  should  purchase  a 
fresh  supply  each  season,  and  should  keep  it  in  air-tight 
vessels.  Pyrethrum  is  used  mainly  as  a  dry  powder  or 
in  water  (one  ounce  to  three  gallo.ns) ;  but  may  also  be 
used  in  the  form  of  a  tea,  or  a  decoction,  a  fume,  or  an 
alcoholic  extract  diluted.  For  use  as  a  dry  powder  it  may 
advantageously  be  diluted  with  six  or  eight  parts  of  flour. 
It  is  especially  excellent  for  clearing  rooms  of  flies  and 
mosquitoes,  and  for  killing  the  common  cabbage  worms. 
It  is  practically  harmless  to  man  and  the  higher  animals. 

Kerosene  and  Soap  Emulsion. — There  are  two 
methods  of  preparing  this  in  common  use, — one  origi- 
nating with  Messrs.  Eiley  and  Hubbard,  and  the  other 
with  Prof.  A.  J.  Gook.  Both  have  their  advocates. 
According  to  the  former  it  is  prepared  by  adding  two 
gallons  of  kerosene  to  one  gallon  of  a  solution  made  by 
dissolving  half  <i  pound  of  hard  soap  in  one  gallon  of 
boiling  water,  and  churning  the  mixture  by  forcing  it 
back  into  the  same  vessel  through  a  force  pump  with  a 
rather  small  nozzle  until  the  whole  forms  a  creamy  mass, 
which  will  thicken  into  a  jelly-like  substance  on  cooling. 
The  soap  solution  should  be  hot  when  the  kerosene  is 
added,  but  of  course  must  not  be  near  a  fire.  In  case 
soft  soap  is  used  add  one  quart  in  place  of  the  one-half 
pound  of  hard  soap.  The  emulsion  thus  made  is  to  be 
diluted  before  using  with  from  nine  to  fifteen  or  twenty 


44  IKSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

parts  of  water  to  one  part  of  emulsion.  The  amount  of 
dilution  varies  with  different  insects ;  plant  lice  may  be 
killed  with  emulsion  diluted  with  fifteen  or  twenty  parts 
of  water,  while  hard-bodied  insects  require  a  dilution  of 
only  nine  or  ten  parts  water.  Soft  or  rain  water  should 
be  used  in  diluting.  If  this  cannot  be  obtained  add  a 
little  lye  or  bicarbonate  of  soda  ;  or  prepare  according  to 
one  of  the  following  methods. 

Professor  Cook  has  two  formulas, — one  where  soft 
soap  is  used  and  the  other  for  hard  soap.  He  describes 
tliem  as  follows  : 

Cook's  Soft-soap  Emulsion. —  '^Dissolve  one 
quart  of  soft  soap  in  two  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Eemove 
from  fire  and,  while  gtill  boiling  hot,  add  one  pint  of 
kerosene  and  immediately  agitate  with  the  pump  as  de- 
scribed above.  In  two  or  three  minutes  the  emulsion 
will  be  perfect.  This  should  be  diluted  by  adding  an 
equal  amount  of  water,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  This 
always  emulsifies  readily  with  hard  or  soft  water  ;  always 
remains  permanent,  for  years  even,  and  is  very  easily 
diluted,  even  in  the  coldest  weather  and  without  any 
heating.  In  this  last  respect  it  has  no  equal,  30  far  as 
we  have  exjoerimented.  The  objections  to  it  are, — we 
cannot  always  procure  the  soft  soap,  though  many  farm- 
ers make  it,  and  it  is  generally  to  be  found  in  our  mar- 
kets; and  it  occasionally  injures  the  foliage,  probably 
owing  to  the  caustic  properties  of  the  soap.  We  have 
used  this  freely  for  years,  aud  never  saw  any  injury  till 
the  past  season.  In  case  of  any  such  trouble  use  only 
one  half  the  amount  of  soap — one  pint  instead  of  one 
quart.    It  works  just  as  well." 

Cook's  Hard-soap  Emulsion. —  ^^ Dissolve  one 
quarter  pound  of  hard  soap — Ivory,  Babbitt,  Jaxon,  or 
whale  oil,  etc. — in  two  quarts  of  water ;  add,  as  before, 
one  pint  of  kerosene,  and  pump  the  mixture  back  into 
itself  while  hot.     This  always  emulsifies  at  once,  and  is 


THE    USE   OF   IKSECTICIDES  45 

permanent  with  bard  as  well  as  soft  water.  This  is 
diluted  with,  twice  its  bulk  of  water  before  use.  The 
objection  to  a  large  amount  of  water  sinks  before  the 
fact  that  this  secures  a  sure  and  permanent  emulsion 
even  though  diluted  with  hard  water.  This  also  be- 
comes, with  certain  soaps,  lumpy  or  stringy  when  cold, 
so  that  it  cannot  be  readily  diluted  with  cold  water  un- 
less first  heated.  Yet  this  is  true  with  all  hard-soap 
emulsions  in  case  of  certain  soaps.  We  can,  however, 
always  dilute  easily  if  we  do  so  at  once  before  our  emul- 
sion is  cold,  and  we  can  also  do  the  same  either  by  heat- 
ing the  emulsion  or  diluent,  no  matter  how  long  we  wait." 

When  the  undiluted  emulsion,  however  made,  is  to 
be  kept  for  future  use,  store  it  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
When  desired  for  use  measure  out  the  required  amount 
and  mix  it  with  three  or  four  parts  of  boiling  water. 
Then  add  cold  water  to  fill  out  the  dilution. 

This  emulsion  is  useful  in  destroying  a  large  num- 
ber of  insect  pests,  such  as  plant  lice,  scale  lice,  chinch 
bngs  and  similar  sucking  species. 

Kerosene  and  Milk  Emulsion. — The  kerosene 
may  be  emulsified  with  milk  instead  of  soap.  One  gallon 
of  sour  milk  is  added  to  two  gallons  of  kerosene,  and  the 
mixture  is  churned  by  means  of  a  force  pump  and  nozzle 
as  directed  above.  ^^  The  change  from  a  watery  liquid 
to  a  thick  buttery  consistency,  much  thicker  than  with 
the  soap,  takes  place  very  suddenly  after  three  to  five 
minutes'  agitation.  With  sweet  milk  difficulty  will  fre- 
quently be  experienced,  and  if  the  emulsion  does  not  re- 
sult in  five  minutes  the  addition  of  a  little  vinegar  will 
induce  prompt  action.  It  is  better  to  prepare  the  milk 
emulsion  from  time  to  time  for  immediate  use,  unless  it 
can  be  stored  in  quantity  in  air-tight  Jars,  otherwise  it 
will  ferment  and   spoil  after  a  week  or  two."*     This  is 

*C.  L.  Marlatt. 


46  IKSECTS   AN'D   INSECTICIDES 

to  be  diluted  in  the  same  manner  as  recommended  for 
the  Eiley  soap  emulsion. 

In  applying  kerosene  emulsion  to  destroy  plant 
mites  like  the  red  spider,  it  is  well  to  add  one  ounce 
of  powdered  sulphur  to  each  gallon  of  the  diluted 
emulsion. 

Through  the  investigations  of  Professor  E.  S.  Goff 
a  modification  of  the  knapsack  sprayers  has  been  made 
so  that  kerosene  can  be  used  without  emulsifying,  being 
mechanically  mixed  with  water  at  the  moment  of  appli- 
cation. Experiments  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Weed  of  Mississippi 
indicate  that  by  means  of  the  attachment  ^^the  kerosene 
and  water  are  so  thoroughly  mixed  in  the  act  of  pump- 
ing that  the  kerosene  is  as  harmless  to  the  foliage  as  is 
an  emulsion  of  the  same  strength,  and  it  is  as  sure  death 
to  insects."  This  seems  a  very  promising  advance  ;  but 
recent  experiments  by  Mr.  0.  L.  Marlatt  indicate  that 
there  are  many  practical  dhSiculties  encountered  in  using 
the  apparatus. 

Pure  kerosene  is  frequently  a  useful  insecticide  for 
certain  pests.  It  is  especially  valuable  in  destroying  ver- 
min in  henhouses,  and  has  been  successfully  applied  to 
the  surface  of  ponds  to  destroy  the  larvae  of  mosquitoes, 
and  thus  prevent  the  development  of  the  adults. 

Fish-oil  Soap. — Professor  J.  B.  Smith  and  others 
report  excellent  results  in  the  use  of  this  substance 
against  plant  lice  and  similar  insects.  This  soap  is  on 
the  market  at  about  twelve  cents  a  pound,  but  according 
to  Professor  Smith  it  can  be  made  much  more  cheaply  by 
the  following  formula : 

Hirsh's  crystal  potash  lye, 1  pound. 

Fish  oil,  3  pints. 

Soft  water,  3  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  lye  in  the  water,  heat  to  boiling,  and 
then  add  the  oil.  It  should  be  boiled  about  two  hours, 
and  when  done  w^ater  can  be  added  to  make   up  for  the 


THE    USE    OF    INSECTICIDES  47 

loss  by  eyaporatioii.  For  use  as  an  insecticide  it  is  made 
into  a  dilute  suds  by  dissolving  one  pound  of  soap  in 
eight  gallons  of  water.  It  is  less  liable  to  injure  foliage 
than  is  kerosene  emulsion. 

Lime  Spray  is  made  by  slaking  a  half-peck  or  a 
peck  of  fresh  lime  in  water,  and  pouring  into  a  barrel 
nearly  full  of  water,  straining  the  lumps  out  as  it  enters 
the  barrel.  By  means  of  this  and  the  spray  pump,  trees 
and  vines  may  be  literally  whitewashed.  It  is  useful  in 
mechanically  coating  plants  so  that  certain  insects  will 
not  molest  them. 

Resin  Washes. — ^ 'These  washes  have  proved  of 
greatest  value,  particularly  against  red  scale  {Aspidiohis 
aurmitii)  in  California,  and  will  be  of  use  in  all  similar 
climates  where  the  occurrence  of  comparatively  rainless 
seasons  insures  the  continuance  of  the  wash  on  the  trees 
for  a  considerable  period,  and  where,  owing  to  the 
warmth,  the  multiplication  of  the  scale  insects  continues 
almost  without  interruption  throughout  the  year. 
Where  rains  are  liable  to  occur  at  short  intervals,  and  in 
the  Northern  States,  the  quicker-acting  and  stronger 
kerosene  washes  are  preferable.  The  resin  washes  act 
by  contact,  having  a  certain  caustic  effect,  but  princi- 
pally by  forming  an  impervious  coating  over  the  scale 
insects,  thereby  smothering  them.  The  application  may 
be  more  liberal  than  with  the  kerosene  washes,  the  object 
being  to  thoroughly  wet  the  bark. 

''The  wash  is  made  as  follows  ; 

Resin, 20  pounds 

Caustic  soda, 5  pounds 

Fisli  oil, 2i  pints 

Water  to  make 100  gaUons 

''The  ordinary  commercial  resin  is  used  and  the 
caustic  soda  is  that  put  up  for  soap  establishments  in 
large  200-pound  drums.  Smaller  quantities  may  be 
obtained  at  soap  factories.  These  substances  should  be 
finely  broken  up  to  hasten   action  and  placed,  with  the 


48  IKSECTS   AXD   INSECTICIDES 

oil,  in  a  large  kettle  with  sufficient  water  to  coyer  them. 
Boiling  should  be  continued  for  one  or  two  hours  with 
occasional  additions  of  cold  water,  or  until  the  compound 
will  mix  perfectly  in  water  instead  of  breaking  up  into 
yellowish  flakes.  The  undiluted  wash  is  pale  yellow; 
intermixed  with  water  it  becomes  dark  reddish-brown. 
It  may  be  kept  in  concentrated  form  and  diluted  as 
required. 

'*^A  stronger  wash  is  necessary  for  the  more  resistant 
San  Jose  scale  {As^jkUotus  2^erniciosios),  and  for  this 
the  dilution  should  be  one-third  less  or  sixty-six  and 
two-thirds  gallons  instead  of  one  hundred.  This  stronger 
mixture  is  a  winter  wash  and  is  only  to  be  applied  during 
the  dormant  j^eriod;  in  the  growing  season  it  will  cause 
the  loss  of  foliage  and  fruit."* 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  Gas. — ''The  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas  treatment  of  scale-infested  trees  has  hitherto  been 
exclusively  confined  to  California,  but  recently  has  been 
introduced  in  the  East  by  the  Dei^artment  to  combat  the 
San  Jose  scale.  Briefly,  it  consists  in  inclosing  the  tree 
with  a  tent  and  filling  the  latter  with  the  poisonous 
fumes  generated  with  potassium  cyanide  and  sulphuric 
acid.  The  tents  are  made  of  blue  or  brown  drilling  or 
eight-ounce  duck  and  painted,  or  oiled  with  linseed  oil, 
to  make  them  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible.  They  are 
placed  over  the  trees  by  hand  or  with  poles  in  case  of 
small  trees,  but  with  trees  over  ten  feet  high  some  sort 
of  tripod  or  derrick  is  used.  The  outfit  for  medium- 
sized  trees — tent  and  derrick — will  cost  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  dollars.  A  tent  for  trees  twenty-six  feet  tall 
by  sixty  feet  in  circumference  costs  as  much  as  sixty 
dollars. 

''Commercial  fused  potassium  cyanide  (costing  in 
bulk  forty  cents  per  pound),  commercial  sulphuric  acid 
(at  three  and  one-half  cents  per  pound),  and  water  are 

*C-  L.  Marlatt,  BuUetiii  V.  S.  Dept.  AgricuUure. 


THE   USE   OF   IN^SECTICIDES  49 

used  in  generating  the  gas,  the  proportions  being  one 
ounce  by  weight  of  the  cyanide,  slightly  more  than  one 
fluid  ounce  of  the  acid,  and  three  fluid  ounces  of  water 
to  every  one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  of  space  in- 
closed. The  generator,  which  may  be  any  glazed 
earthenware  vessel  of  one  or  two  gallons'  capacity,  is 
placed  within  the  tent  under  the  tree  and  the  water, 
acid  and  cyanide,  the  latter  broken  up,  and  put  in  in  the 
order  named,  after  which  the  operator  withdraws  from 
the  tent.  The  tent  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree  for 
one-half  l\our  for  large  trees,  or  fifteen  minutes  for  small 
ones.  The  treatment  is  best  made  on  cloudy  days,  early 
in  the  morning,  late  in  the  evening,  or  at  night.  Bright 
hot  sunlight  is  liable  to  cause  injury  to  the  foliage,  which, 
however,  may  be  largely  avoided  by  using  tents  of  dark 
material  or  painted  black.  Three  or  four  men  can 
operate  six  tents  at  once,  and  the  expense  under  such 
conditions,  not  counting  the  cost  of  the  outfit,  need  not 
be  more  than  ten  cents  per  tree."     [Marlatt.] 

Tobacco. — This  is  a  very  valuable  insecticide  for 
use  against  vermin  on  domestic  animals,  greenhouse  and 
other  pests.  It  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  a  decoction, 
a  smoke,  or  dry.  The  refuse  stems  and  powders  from 
the  cigar  factories  are  very  valuable  as  insecticides  and 
fertilizers,  and  frequently,  in  the  Middle  Western  States, 
they  may  be  obtained  for  little  or  nothing.  The  decoc- 
tion is  made  by  boiling  refuse  tobacco  stems  or  dust  in 
water,  or  pouring  boiling  water  over  them.  This  gives  a 
concentrated  liquid  which  is  to  be  diluted  with  cold 
water,  until  there  are  two  gallons  water  for  each  pound 
of  tobacco  used.  It  is  a  good  remedy  for  plant  lice.  A 
stronger  formula,  recommended  by  Mr.  M.  V.  Slinger- 
land,  is  to  steep  five  pounds  of  tobacco  stems  in  three 
gallons  of  water  for  three  hours ;  then  strain  and  dilute 
with  enough  water  to  make  seven  gallons,  when  the 
decoction  is  ready  to  use. 
4 


50  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

Potash  Fertilizers. — Professor  J.  B.  Smith  has 
shown  that  kaiuit  and  muriate  of  potash  apphed  as  ferti- 
lizers have  a  decided  insecticidal  value  against  under- 
ground insects.  The  fertilizer  is  best  applied  just  before 
or  during  rainfall. 

Carbolic  Acid,  especially  in  its  crude  state,  is 
valuable  for  various  insecticidal  purposes.  An  excellent 
wash  for  preventing  the  injuries  of  several  tree  borers  is 
made  by  mixing  one  quart  of  soft  soap,  or  about  a  pound 
of  hard  soap,  with  two  gallons  water,  heating  to  boiling, 
and  then  adding  a  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  Carbolic- 
acid  soaps  are  largely  used  for  destroying  vermin  on 
domestic  animals. 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon. — This  colorless,  volatile 
liquid  is  used  for  destroying  grain  insects,  ants,  the 
grape  phylloxera,  and  other  pests  that  may  be  reached  by 
a  vapor.  On  exposure  to  air  the  liquid  evaporates,  and 
as  the  vapor  is  heavier  than  air  it  settles  rather  than 
rises.  In  fifty-pound  cans  the  bisulphide  costs  ten  cents 
a  pound,  though  it  generally  retails  for  twice  this  amount 
or  even  more.  It  is  highly  inflammable,  and  in  using  it 
great  care  must  be  taken  that  no  fire  in  any  form  comes 
near  it.  It  should  be  stored  in  tight  vessels  in  outbuild- 
ings, securely  fastened.  It  is  liable  to  injure  seed  grain 
treated  with  it,  though  it  does  not  affect  the  milling  qual- 
ity of  the  grain.  The  liquid  has  a  disagreeable  odor, 
which  soon  completely  disappears. 

Benzine  is  another  volatile  substance  used  for  much 
the  same  purposes  as  the  last. 

Gasoline  may  also  be  mentioned  in  the  same  con- 
nection. 

Coal  Tar  has  been  largely  used  in  the  West  for  de- 
stroying Eocky  Mountain  locusts,  being  placed  on  flat 
pans,  on  which  the  insects  jump  and  are  caught.  It  is 
also  employed  to  prevent  the  migrations  of  the  chinch 
bug.     A  shallow  V-shaped  channel   is   made  with   the 


INSECTICIDES   WITH   FUNGICIDES  51 

corner  of  a  hoe  along  the  borders  of  the  field  to  be  pro- 
tected, and  tar  poured  in.  So  long  as  the  tar  does  not 
dry  out,  the  immature  chinch  bugs  cannot  cross  it. 

OMBINING   INSECTICIDES   WITH   FUNGICIDES 

It  is  often  desirable  to  combine  a  fungicide  with  an 
insecticide,  applying  both  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  mixture.  The  advantages  of  this  are  obvious.  The 
following  combinations  have  been  found  practicable  : 

Bordeaux  Mixture  and  Arsenites. — Add  four 
ounces  London  purple  or  Paris  green  to  fifty  gallons  of 
dilute  Bordeaux  mixture. 

'^The  Bordeaux  mixture  is  made  by  combining  six 
pounds  of  copper  sulphate  and  four  pounds  of  quicklime, 
with  water  to  make  fifty  gallons.  The  copper  sulphate 
is  dissolved  m  water  (hot,  if  prompt  action  is  desired) 
and  diluted  to  about  twenty-five  gallons.  The  fresh  lime 
is  slaked  in  water,  diluted  to  twenty-five  gallons,  and 
strained  into  the  copper  solution,  after  which  the  whole 
is  thoroughly  stirred  with  a  paddle.  Both  the  copper 
and  the  lime  mixtures  may  be  kept  in  strong  solution  as 
stock  mixtures,  but  when  combined  should  be  promptly 
used,  as  the  Bordeaux  mixture  deteriorates  on  standing." 
This  is  one  of  the  very  best  combined  insecticides  and 
fungicides.  It  can  be  used  safely  and  effectively  upon  a 
great  variety  of  crops — such  as  potatoes  for  Colorado 
beetles  and  blight,  apples  and  pears  for  insects  and  scab, 
and  plums  for  curculio  and  leaf  or  fruit  diseases. 

Copper  Arsenic  Solution. —  The  Ohio  Experi- 
ment Station  recommends  the  following  combination  : 
Paris  green  two  ounces,  carbonate  of  copper  two  ounces, 
dissolve  in  three  pints  of  ammonia,  add  one-half  pound 
lime  and  one  barrel  of  water.  It  is  advised  that  this  be 
substituted  for  the  arsenite  and  Bordeaux  combination 
for  the  later  sprayings  of  apples,  pears,  plums,  etc.,  so  as 
to  avoid  the  lime  coating  on  the  fruit. 


a? 


li^SECTS   AND   IKSECTICIDES 


Care  must  be  taken  in  combining  the  arsenites  with 
other  fungicide  solutions,  as  one  is  liable  thus  to  pro- 
duce a  compound  very  injurious  to  foliage.  Paris  green 
or  London  purple  added  to  simple  solutions  of  copper 
sulphate,  or  to  ammonia  compounds  without  lime,  in- 
jures foliage  vastly  more  than  in  simple  water  mixture. 

THE   APPLICATIOIT   OF   INSECTICIDES 

The  methods  of  applying  insecticides  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  substance  and  the  insect  against 
which  it  is  to  be  used.  The  dry  powders  are  generally 
best  applied,  by  means  of  some  powder  bellows^  a  number 


FIG.  17.     POWDER  GUN. 

of  patterns  of  which  are  upon  the  market.  An  appara- 
tus sometimes  called  the  dry-poison  duster,  which  is  used 
extensively  in  the  south,  is  described  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Weed. 
"^It  consists  simply  of  two  bags  made  of  eight-ounce 
osnaburg  cloth  attached  to  the  ends  of  a  pole  about  six 
feet  long  and  two  inches  in  diameter — a  hickory  pole 
being  preferred.  The  bags  are  made  about  a  foot  long 
and  six  inches  deep,  and  are  tacked  to  the  sides  of  the 


THE    APPLICATION    OF   INSECTICIDES 


53 


pole.  The  dry  insecticide  is  placed  within  the  bags  by 
means  of  a  hole  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  bored  through 
the  pole,  to  be  stopped  up  with  a  removable  plug.  For 
cotton  plants  this  apparatus  is  operated  by  holding  in 
the  hands  when  upon  a  mule.  If  the  mule  goes  at  a 
brisk  trot  the  poison  will  be  distributed  evenly  and  rap- 
idly. For  other  plants,  such  as  the  cabbage  and  potato, 
the  a2)paratus  may  be  held  in  the  hand  and  shaken." 

In  many  cases  the  best  way  to  api:»ly  dry  insecticides 
is  by  one  of  the  so-called  ^^ powder  guns,"  a  good  form 
of  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  17. 

In  general,  insecticides  are  most  satisfactorily  applied 
in  a  liquid  state  by  means  of  a  force  pump  and  spray 
nozzle.  There  are  four 
general  styles  of  spraying 
machines  upon  the  market. 
First,  we  have  the  small 
bucket  pumps  that  serve  a 
useful  purpose  where  only 
a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  spraying  is  to  be 
done  ;  then  come  the  knap- 
sack sprayers,  one  of  the 
best  of  which  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  18,  which  are  espe- 
cially useful  in  spraying  '  •«•'--  "...^-"'^'"-^^ 
small  vineyards  and  crops 

-J  ^       FIG.  18.       THE  KNAPSACK  SPRAYER. 

where  a  horse  cannot  well 

be  driven  ;  third,  we  have  what  may  be  called  the  barrel 
class  of  sprayers,  being  good-sized  pumps  to  be  attached 
to  barrels  mounted  in  various  ways ;  and,  finally,  there 
are  the  large-geared,  machines  working  automatically  by 
horse  power.  For  the  general  purposes  of  the  average 
farmer  or  fruit  grower  the  barrel  machines  are  much  the 
most  useful.  They  are  also  of  moderate  cost,  ranging 
from  eight  to  sixteen  dollars.      They  can  be  used  in 


54 


INSECTS   Ai^D   INSECTICIDES 


spraying  all  sorts  of  crops,  and  may  well  be  mounted 
on  separate  wheels,  or  the  barrel  may  be  placed  in  a 
wagon  when  in  use. 

For  work  in  the  nursery  as  well  as  many  other 
places  an  excellent  spraying  outfit  ^^can  be  made  by 
firmly  fastening  a  barrel,  end  up,  on  a  sled  made  of 


FIG.  19.     OUTFIT  FOR  SPRAYING  GRAPES. 

heavy  durable  timber.  Mount  upon  the  barrel  a  good, 
strong,  double-acting  force  pump  provided  with  two- 
hose  attachments,  to  each  end  of  which  fasten  twenty- 
five  feet  of  half-inch  hose.  To  the  end  of  each  hose 
attach  a  Vermorel  nozzle  ;  then  with  the  necessary  gear- 
ing for  hitching  the  horse,  the  outfit  is  complete.  For 
operating  the  machine  two  men  and  a  horse  are  required. 
One  man  does  the  pumping  and  attends  to  the  horse, 
while  the  other  walks  behind  and  directs  the  spray  over 
two  rows  at  a  time."* 

A  good  outfit  for  use  in  the  vineyard,  recommended 

*  GaUoway. 


THE   APPLICATION   OF   INSECTICIDES 


55 


by  Professor  Bailey,  is  illustrated  in  Fig  19.  A  barrel 
with  pump  is  mounted  crosswise  on  the  wagon,  ''and 
the  driver  rides  and  pumps.  Another  man  walks  be- 
hind and  throws  the  spray  up  under  the  vines  and  on  to 
all  the  clusters  by  means  of  a  Vermorel  nozzle  attached 
to  a  half-inch  gas  pipe.  This  gas  pipe  has  somewhat 
the  form  of  a  slim  letter  S,  the  nozzle  being  attached  to 


FIG.  20.     INSECT  NET. 

one  terminal  crook,  the  other  crook  resting  over  the 
man's  left  arm.  The  hose  is  attached  near  the  shoulder. 
The  pipe  is  so  long  that  the  operator  is  not  obliged  to 
stoop,  and  he  can  direct  the  spray  in  any  direction,  while 
the  apparatus  hangs  easily  upon  the  arm.  A  globe 
valve  just  below  the  arm  enables  the  operator  to  shut  oif 
the  stream  at  will." 

The  nozzle  forms  an  important  part  of  the  spraying 
outfit.  There  are  many  varieties  of  these  upon  the 
market ;  some  of  them  are  better  adapted  to  certain  kinds 


56  INSECTS   AJ^D   IIs^SECTICIDES 

of  work  than  are  others,  so  that  it  pays  to  have  several 
forms  on  hand  where  there  is  a  variety  of  spraying  to  be 
done.  Some  of  the  best  forms  are  the  Yermorel,  Ch- 
max.  Eureka,  Graduating  Spray,  Mason,  Bordeaux  and 
McGowen.  The  latter  is  very  good  for  orchard 
work.  For  spraying  large  trees,  some  method  of  raising 
the  nozzle  nearly  to  the  top  is  generally  necessary.  The 
commonest  way  of  doing  this  is  to  fasten  the  nozzle  and 
hose  to  a  long  pole  ;  but  a  better  way  is  to  use  a  half- 
inch  gas  pipe  or  a  brass  tube,  twelve  or  fourteen  feet 
long,  attaching  the  hose  at  one  end  and  the  nozzle  at 
the  other,  or  one  of  the  bamboo  extensions  manufactured 
by  some  spraying  firms. 

COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING   INSECTS 

The  apparatus  for  collecting  insects  for  study  is 
neither  elaborate  nor  expensive.  One  of  the  first  essen- 
tials is  a  collecting  net,  which  is  used  for  catching  but- 
terflies, moths,  bees,  flies,  wasps,  and  in  fact  nearly  all 
flying  insects.  To  make  it,  obtain  an  iron  ware  about 
one-fifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  bend  it  into  a  cir- 
cular ring  twelve  or  thirteen  inches  in  diameter,  leaving 
the  ends  projecting  at  right  angles  to  the  circle,  and 
welding  them  together  so  as  to  form  a  spur  three  or  four 
inches  long.  Fasten  this  spur  into  the  cod  of  a  broom- 
stick, or  any  other  convenient  handle  three  or  four  feet 
long.  Then  sew  over  this  wire  circle  a  strip  of  strong 
muslin,  an  inch  or  two  wide,  and  to  this  sew  a  bag  of 
mosquito  netting,  swiss  muslin,  or  some  similar  fabric, 
about  three  feet  deep.  For  collecting  insects  in  ponds, 
a  shallower  net  is  needed,  and  the  cloth  used  should  be 
of  stronger  material. 

After  the  insects  are  caught,  some  way  of  killing 
them  quickly  and  without  injury  is  needed.     For  this 
purpose   most    entomologists    use   wdiafc    is   called    the- 
cyanide  bottle.     To  make  this,  obtain  almost  any  wide- 


COLLECTING  AKD  PRESERVING  INSECTS 


57 


mouthed  glass  bottle  with  a  tight-fitting  cork ;  place  on 
the  bottom  two  or  three  lumps  of  cyanide  of  potassium, 
the  size  of  a  hickory  nut,  coyer  these  with  plaster  of 
Paris,  and,  finally,  add  sufficient  water  to  moisten  the 
plaster  and  make  it  set.  After 
it  is  hard  pour  off  the  surplus 
water  if  there  is  any,  and  let 
the  bottle  become  thoroughly 
dry  before  inserting  the  cork. 
This  cyanide  of  potassium  is 
poisonous,  and  of  course  must 
be  handled  carefully.  If  de- 
sired, the  bottles  may  be  pre- 
pared at  drug  stores,  at  small 
cost.  After  the  plaster  is  set 
there  is  practically  no  danger, 
unless  the  fumes  of  the  bottle 
be  directly  inhaled,  for  which 
there  is  no  excuse.  Keep  the 
bottle  closed  except  when  put- 
ting in  an  insect.  The  cya- 
nide fumes,  rising  through 
the  porous  plaster,  will  kill  it 
almost  instantly.  This  cya- 
nide bottle  is  to  be  used  espe- 
cially for  moths,  butterflies, 
bees,  wasps  and  similar  in- 
sects, but  should  not  be  used 
for  worms  and  caterpillars, 
which  are  more  successfully 
killed  and  preserved  in  alco- 
hol. A  pair  of  straight,  medium-sized  forceps  is  useful 
in  collecting  small  insects.  A  supply  of  ordinary  com- 
mercial alcohol,  and  of  various  sizes  (2,  3  and  4  dram) 
of  short,  homeopathic  vials  will  be  necessary  if  soft- 
bodied  caterpillars,  sj^iders,  thousand-legged  worms,  etc., 


FIG.  21.     CYANIDE  BOTTLE. 


58 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


are  collected.  Empty  morphine  bottles  are  very  conven- 
ient. An  ordinary  game  bag  is  an  excellent  thing  to 
carry  the  bottles,  forceps  and  other  ^^ traps"  in,  while 
out  collecting. 

For  rearing  insects  to  study  their  transformations 
and  habits,  hreeding  cages  of  various  kinds  are  needed. 
Almost  any  box  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  covering 
it  in  part  with  gauze,  and  placing  on  the  bottom  an 
inch  or  two  of  moist  earth,  to  prevent  the  drying  of  the 
atmosphere.  Ordinary  jelly  tumblers  are  very  useful 
for  rearing  small  leaf-eating  caterpillars,  and  ''bell 
glasses"  or  glass  shades  are  quite  handy.  The  cages 
should  be  examined  daily,  the  food  frequently  renewed, 
and  the  conditions  which  the  insect  Avould  have  in  its 
natural  habitat  should  be  supplied  as  far  as  possible. 


PRESEEVING   THE   SPECIMENS 

The  first  requisite  for  preserving  insects  is  a  supply 
of   entomological   pins,   which  are   longer   and    usually 

more  slender  than 
ordinary  pins,  an- 
swering the  purpose 
much  better.  What 
is  known  as  the 
Klaeger  pin  is  the 
best  made.  It  can 
be  purchased  of  deal- 
ers in  natural  history 
supplies.  These  pins 
vary  in  size,  accord- 


FIG 


SETTING  BOARD. 


ing  to  number.  No.  2  is  used  only  for  very  small  insects, 
while  No.  5  is  large  enough  for  any  of  our  species.  For 
the  majority  of  specimens  of  moderate  size  No.  4  may 
be  used.  A  supply  of  sheet-cork  is  also  needed.  This 
costs  about  fifty  cents  a  dozen  sheets,  and  may  also  be 
obtained  of  natural  history  supply  dealers. 


PRESEKVIITG    THE    SPECIMENS  59 

Butterflies,  moths,  and  some  other  insects  require, 
for  tlieir  proper  preservation,  what  is  called  a  ^*  setting- 
board,"  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  It  consists 
simply  of  two  thin  strips  of  pine  board,  twelve  or  six- 
teen inches  long,  nailed  to  end  pieces,  with  a  space  vary- 
ing from  one-fourth  to  three-fourths  inch  between  the 
long  strips  ;  a  piece  of  thin  cork  is  fastened  to  the  under- 
side of  the  strips  so  as  to  cover  this  space.  The  pin  on 
which  the  butterfly  is  fastened  is  pushed  through  the 
cork  until  the  side  pieces  are  level  with  the  base  of  the 
wings.  The  wings  are  then  brought  forward  until  the 
posterior  borders  of  the  front  ones  are  at  right  angles  to 
the  body,  and  they  are  then  fastened  in  place  by  pieces 
of  cardboard  held  down  with  pins,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
■tration.  The  insect  should  be  left  thus  fastened  until 
dry,  so  that  the  wings  will  remain  in  the  position  indi- 
cated.    This  usually  requires  from  ten  to  fourteen  days. 

Some  sort  of  boxes  or  cases  in  which  to  keep  the 
specimens  are  of  course  necessary.  Tlie  simplest  and 
cheapest  receptacles  consist  of  empty  cigar  boxes,  lined 
on  the  bottom  with  sheet-cork.  Tight  wooden  boxes  of 
almost  any  kind  will  also  answer  the  purpose.  Shallow 
drawers  with  the  bottoms  lined  with  cork  are  excellent. 

The  specimens  must  frequently  be  examined  to  see 
that  museum  pests — insects  which  live  on  dead  animal 
tissues  of  all  kinds — do  not  destroy  them.  When  these 
are  found,  bake  the  S2:)ecimens  in  an  oven  for  an  hour, 
at  a  temperature  of  140''  Fahrenheit. 

Moths,  butterflies,  bees,  wasps,  and  a  large  number 
of  similar  insects  should  be  pinned  through  the  center 
of  the  tliorax,  or  middle  division  of  the  body,  the  jiin 
being  pushed  through  until  about  one-third  of  its  length 
remains  above  the  insect.  Beetles,  however,  should  be 
pinned  through  the  right  wing  cover,  and  the  true  bugs 
through  the  triangular  piece  at  the  base  of  the  wings, 
called  the  scutellum. 


60  IJS SECTS   AifD    IJfSECTICIDES 

Any  one  desiring  to  learn  about  the  classification  of 
insects  will  find  *^A  Manual  for  tlie  Study  of  Insects/'  by 
Professor  J.  H.  Com  stock,  Ithaca,  New  York,  extremely 
valuable.  Professor  Packard's  books,  ^'Entomology  for 
Beginners,"  and  ''Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects,"  which 
can  be  obtained  through  book  dealers,  will  also  prove 
helpful. 


Insects  affecting  orchard  fruits 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  APPLE 


INJURING  THE  TRUNK 

The  Round=headed  Apple=tree  Borer 

Saperda  Candida 

The  three  later  stages  of  this  insect  are  shown  in 
Fig.  23.  The  beetle  {c)  is  easily  recognized  by  the  brown 
color  of  its  body,  and  the  two  conspicuous,  longitudinal, 
whitish  stripes  along  its  back.  It  appears  early  in  sum- 
mer, and  deposits  its  eggs  on  the  tree  trunks,  in  or  under 
the  bark,  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground,  frequently 
placing  them  just  above  the  soil  surface,  or  even  below  it 
where  the  ground  is  cracked  open  so  that  the  beetle  can 
descend  without  difficulty.  The  insect  makes  a  slit-like 
opening  in  the  bark  (Plate  IV,  a,  b)  into  which  the  egg 
(shown  magnified  at  d)  is  pushed.  A  few  days  later  the 
egg  hatches  into  a  larva  or  grub,  Avhich  gnaws  its  way 
into  the  inner  bark  or  sapwood,  where  it  continues  to 
feed  throughout  the  season.  As  winter  approaches  it 
frequently  burrows  downward  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  rests  there  until  spring,  when  it  again  works 
upward  and  gnaws  the  inner  bark  and  sapwood  as  before. 
It  rests  again  the  following  winter,  and  in  spring  gnaws 
its  way  deeper  into  the  body  of  the  trunk,  cutting  cylin- 
drical channels  in  every  direction.  Late  in  summer  it 
bores  upwards  and  outwards  to  the  bark,  lining  a  cavity 
at  the  end  of  its  burrow  with  dust-like  castings  (/,  g) 
and   there  rests  until  spring,    when  it  changes   to  the 

03 


64 


INSECTS   AKB   IKSECTICIDES 


dormant  chrysalis  state.  The  adult  beetle  emerges  from 
the  chrysalis  about  a  fortnight  later,  eats  a  hole  through 
the  bark  with  its  strong  Jaws,  and  comes  forth  to  con- 
tinue the  propagation  of  the  species.  Thus  three  years 
are  required  for  the  development  of  the  insect. 

The  place  where  the  larva  enters  may  frequently  be 
detected,  especially  in  young  trees,  by  tlie  sawdust-like 
castings  that  are  pushed  out.  The  eggs  also  may  often 
be  seen,  and  are  easily  destroyed  by  pressing  on  the  bark 
surrounding  them  with  a  knife-blade  or  some  similar  in- 
strument. The  presence  of  the  larva  is  shown  later  by 
the  discoloration  of  the  bark  where  it  is  at  work. 

The  full-grown  grnb,  or  larva,  of  the  round-headed 
borer  is  illustrated  at  a,  Fig.  23.     It  is  about  an  inch 


FIG.  23.    ROUND-HEADED  APPLE-TREE  BORER.    «,  larva ;  6,  pupa; 

c,  beetle. 

long,  wholly  without  feet,  whitish,  with  a  chestnut- 
brown  head  and  black  jaws.  The  pupa  or  chrysalis  {b) 
IS  lighter  colored  than  the  larva,  and  has  numerous 
small  spines  on  its  back. 

Remedies. — The  injuries  of  this  insect  maybe  j^re- 
vented  by  applying  late  in  May,  or  early  in  June,  and 
twice  later  at  intervals  of  three  weeks,  a  strong  solution 
of  soft  soap  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  crude  car- 
bolic acid.  This  mixture  may  be  conveniently  made  by 
mixing  one  quart  of  soft  soap,  or  about  a  pound  of  hard 
soap,  with  two  gallons  of  water,  heating  to  boiling,  and 


BOUND  HEADED  APPLE  TREE  BORER       65 

then  adding  a  pint,  of  crude  carbolic  acid.  It  will  be 
made  more  effective  and  permanent  by  the  addition  of  a 
small  amount  of  Paris  green  and  lime.  The  solution 
should  be  thoroughly  applied  (a  scrub  brush  is  excellent 
for  the  purpose)  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  of  the 
tree.  If  the  bark  of  the  trees  is  especially  rough,  it 
should  be  scraped  before  the  wash  is  applied ;  and  the 
soil  should  be  smoothed  down  about  the  base  of  the 
trunk,  so  that  there  will  be  no  cracks  for  the  insects  to 
enter  to  deposit  their  eggs.  Of  course  the  object  of  this 
ap^olication  is  to  prevent  the  laying  of  the  eggs  from 
which  the  grubs  hatch.  As  an  additional  precaution  it 
is  well  to  examine  the  trees  during  the  late  summer  and 
early  autumn  mouths  for  eggs  and  young  grubs,  which 
are  readily  detected,  and  can  be  easily  destroyed  with  a 
knife.  In  this  way  one  man  can  go  over  an  orchard  of 
five  hundred  or  more  young  trees  in  a  day.  Professor 
W.  B.  Alwood  reports' excellent  results  in  aj^ply in g,  in- 
stead of  the  wash  above  described,  a  paint  made  of  pure 
white  lead  and  linseed  oil,  ''about  the  same  thickness  as 
for  outside  coating."  It  is  applied  with  a  brush  to  the 
base  of  the  trees  in  autumn,  preventing  the  injuries  of 
rabbits  and  other  rodents  as  well  as  borers.  One  appli- 
cation lasts  a  year.  A  white  lead  application  has  been 
found  to  injure  some  cherry  trees,  however. 

The  Flat=headed  Apple=tree  Borer 

Chi'ysohothris  femorata 

This  insect  is  very  different,  both  in  its  adult  and 
larval  states,  from  the  one  just  discussed.  The  adult 
beetle,  instead  of  being  cylindrical  in  form  and  brown  in 
color,  is  flattened  and  greenish-black.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, at  about  the  same  season  as  the  other,  and  the  life 
histories  of  the  two  species  are  in  general  much  alike, 
the  principal  difference  being  that  the  present  species 
5 


66 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


requires  less  time  to  develop,  and  attacks  the  tree  higher 
up,  being  found  all  the  way  up  the  trunk,  and  fre- 
quently in  the  larger  branches. 

The  front  end  of  the  larva,  which  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  24,  a,  is  enlarged  and  flattened  while  the  rest  of  the 
body  is  much  narrower,  and  tapers  slightly  towards  the 
I)osterior  extremity.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellow  color  and  has 
no  feet.  The  jDupa  {h)  is  at  first  whitish,  but  becomes 
darker  as  the  beetle  develops.  As 
noted  above,  the  adult  beetle  {d) 
is  of  a  shining  greenish-black 
color,  and  has  short,  stout  legs. 
It  may  often  be  seen  basking  in 
the  sunshine  in  summer,  on  the 
sides  of  trees  and  logs.  The  eggs 
of  this  insect  are  deposited  early 
in  summer  in  the  crevices,  and 
under  the  scales  of  the  bark,  being 
fastened  in  place  by  a  glutinous 
FIG.  24.  FLAT-HEADED  BOR-  gubstancc.      lu    a    fcw   davs    the 

ER.    a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c, ,  i      ,    i  i     i  ii  ^ 

front  of  larva,  lower  side;  larva  hatchcs  and   borcs  through 
d,  beetle.  the  bark  to  the  sap  wood,  in  which 

it  cuts  broad,  flat  channels,  and  sometimes  completely 
girdles  the  tree.  As  it  develops  it  bores  farther  into  the 
solid  wood,  and  when  fully  grown  again  approaches  the 
surface.  When  ready  to  become  a  pupa  it  gnaws  par- 
tially through  the  bark,  and  then  casts  its  last  larval 
skin.  About  a  fortnight  later  the  pupa  changes  to  a 
beetle  which  gnaws  its  way  through  the  bark,  and  thus 
completes  the  cycle  of  development. 

Remedies. — The   directions  given  above    for   the 
round-headed  borer  are  also  applicable  to  this  insect. 


THE  OYSTER  SHELL  BARK   LOUSE 


67 


INJURING  THE   BRANCHES 

The  Oyster =shel I  Bark  Louse 

Mytilaspis  pomorum 

A  piece  of  bark  covered  with  the  scales  of  this  in- 
sect is  represented  in  Fig.  25.  If  one  of  these  scales  be 
raised  early  in  spring  there  will  be  found  beneath  it  a 
mass  of  yellowish  or  whitish  eggs,  which  hatch  about  the 


FIG.  25.      OYSTER-SHELL  BARK  LOUSE. 

middle  of  May  into  small  lice  that  appear  as  mere 
specks  to  the  naked  eye.  These  move  about  over  the 
bark  a  few  days,  when  they  fix  themselves  upon  it,  in- 
serting their  tiny  beaks   far  enough  to  reach  the  sap. 


FIG  26.  OYSTER-SHELL  BARK-LOUSE.  1,  egg;  2,  young  larva;  3,  larva 
forming  scale;  4,  young  scale;  5,  6,  lice  with  scales  removed;  7, 
mature  scale.    Magnified. 

Here  they  continue  to  increase  in  size,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  season  have  secreted  scaly  coverings  like  those  shown 
in  the  illustration. 


THE    WOOLLY    APHIS  69 

Remedies. — During  the  winter  and  early  spring 
as  many  of  tlie  scales  should  be  scraped  off  the  trunk  and 
larger  branches  as  possible.  On  large  trees  this  may  be 
done  by  first  scraping  with  some  instrument  like  a  hoe, 
and  then  thoroughly  scrubbing  with  a  scrub  brush  or 
broom,  dipped  in  a  solution  made  by  adding  one  part  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  seven  parts  of  a  solution  made  by 
dissolving  one  quart  of  soft  soap,  or  one-fourth  of  a 
pound  of  hard  soap,  in  two  quarts  of  boiling  water. 
The  bark  of  young  trees  is  so  tender  that  they  must  be 
scraped  carefully,  if  at  all.  A  scrub  brush  is  the  best 
thing  to  use  for  applying  the  soap  mixture,  as  the 
bristles  remove  many  scales  which  a  cloth  would  slide 
over.  Then  in  May  or  June,  soon  after  the  young  lice 
have  hatched,  the  trees  should  be  sprayed  with  kero- 
sene emulsion.  The  emulsion  must  be  thoroughly 
mixed,  with  none  of  the  kerosene  floating  separately,  or 
it  is  liable  to  injure  the  foliage.  When  the  lice  are 
young  they  are  very  readily  destroyed  by  this  substance. 

The  Woolly  Aphis 

ScMzoneura  lanigera 

There  are  frequently  found  on  the  limbs  and  trunks 
of  young  apple  trees,  masses  of  a  white,  woolly  sub- 
stance, similar  to  that  occurring  on  the  limbs  of  maple 
trees  infested  by  the  maple-bark  louse.  If  one  of  these 
masses  be  examined  there  is  found  beneath  it  one  or 
more  small,  yellowish  plant  lice.  This  is  the  insect  that 
has  for  a  long  time  been  popularly  known  as  the  woolly 
aphis,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  apple-tree  root  louse. 
There  are  two  forms  of  the  insect,  one  attacking  the 
roots,  the  presence  of  which  may  be  easily  detected  by 
the  knotty  appearance  of  the  infested  rootlets  (Fig.  27,  a), 
and  one  attacking  the  limbs    and   trunk.     Like  other 


70 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


aphides,  these  insects  multiply  rapidly  during  the  summer 
months  by  giving  birth  to  living  young.  Most  of  these 
summer  forms  are  wingless,  but  occasionally  winged 
ones  are  found.  They  all  injure  the  tree  by  sucking  out 
its  sap  through  their  tiny  beaks.  They  are  esj)ecially 
liable  to  infest  young  trees,  or  those  which  are  un- 
healthy. The  woolly  matter  which  they  secrete  as  a 
covering  serves  to  protect  them  from  the  damp  earth, 
in  their  subterranean  home  on  the  roots,  and  probably  is 
a  partial  protection  from  enemies  above  ground.     It  is 


FIG.  27.    WOOLLY  APHIS,    a,  rootlet  showing  galls;  6,  wingless  aphis; 
c,  winged   ax)his  ;  d-g,  structural  details;  ?>-^,  magnified. 


not  a  complete  protection,  however,  as  they  are  preyed 
upon  by  a  small  parasitic  fly,  and  by  ladybird  beetles 
and  their  larvae. 

The  malformations  caused  by  this  insect  on  seedling 
apple  trees  are  well  represented  in  Plate  V,  while  Fig.  28 
shows  healthy  roots  of  similar  trees.  Trees  so  injured 
are  unfit  for  planting. 

Remedies. — Where  these  insects  are  upon  the  roots 
of  trees  they  may  be  destroyed  by  applying  scalding 
water,  or  kerosene   emulsion.     Refuse   tobacco   powder 


THE   WOOLLY    APHIS 


71 


dug  in  about  the  roots  will  also  destroy  them.  Where 
they  are  upon  parts  of  the  tree  above  ground,  they  may 
be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion.  Young 


Fig.  28.    ROOTS  OF  HEALTHY  APPLE  SEEDLINGS.    Reduced. 

trees  from  nurseries  should  always  be  carefully  examined 
before  planting,  and  if  the  roots  are  malformed  by  this 
insect  the  trees  should  either  be  burned  or  disinfected  by 
dipping  m  kerosene  emulsion. 


72 


INSECTS    AND   INSECTICIDES 


The  Buffalo  Tree   Hopper 

Ceresa   bubalus 

One  sometimes  finds  the  twigs  of  young  apple  trees 
exhibiting  a  peculiar,  scarred  appearance  like  that  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  29,  e.  These  are  due  to  the  egg  punctures 
of  the  above  named  insect. 

The  buffalo  tree  hopper  is  a  small  greenish  or  yel- 
lowish insect  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  which  is 


FIG.  29.     BUFFALO  TREE  HOPPER, 
size;  6,  fresh  punctures; 


adult,  magnified  and  natural 
d,  eggs ;  e,  scars. 


generally  rather  common  during  the  late  summer  and  early 
autumn  months.  A  fair  idea  of  its  form,  which  has  been 
compared  to  that  of  a  beechnut,  may  be  obtained  from 
Fig.  29,  a.  Its  mouth  consists  of  a  sharp  beak,  which 
it  inserts    into    the    tissues    of    succulent    plants   and 


THE   BUFFALO    TREE    HOPPER  -     73 

siickvS  their  sap.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  young  twigs  of  apple,  pear,  maple  and  various 
other  fruit  and  shade  trees,  mostly  during  the  late  sum- 
mer and  early  autumn  months.  It  is  believed  that  a 
single  female  may  deposit  two  hundred  eggs.  ^^  The 
eggs  are  placed  in  small  compound  groups  arranged  in 
two  nearly  parallel  or  slightly  curved  slits  extending  in 
the  direction  of  the  twig  about  three-sixteenths  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  separated  by  one-eighth  inch  or  less 
of  bark."  In  making  the  second  slit  the  insect  cuts  the 
bark  obliquely  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a  small  piece 
loose  ;  this  causes  the  bark  to  die  and  eventually  leaves 
a  dead  space  on  the  twig.  These  dead  spots  are  favorite 
places  for  wood-boring  beetles  to  oviposit  in,  so  that  the 
injury  by  the  tree  hoppers  may  be  followed  by  more  se- 
rious damage  by  borers.  The  eggs  remain  dormant  until 
the  following  spring  when  they  hatch  into  small,  active, 
greenish  hoppers,  somewhat  like  the  adults  in  appearance. 
These  feed  upon  weeds  or  other  succulent  plants,  gen- 
erally developing  upon  tender  annuals  in  preference  to 
attacking  the  tougher  tissues  of  woody  plants.  They  be- 
come full  grown  about  midsummer.  The  eggs  of  the 
buffalo  tree  hopper  are  attacked  by  at  least  two  minute 
parasites  that  serve  as  important  checks  upon  its  in- 
crease. 

Remedies. — It  is  alwaj-s  more  difficult  to  jDrevent 
the  injuries  of  an  insect  that  feeds  upon  a  large  variety 
of  plants,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  than  one  which  is 
confined  for  food  to  the  single  crop  injured.  As  a  rule 
it  is  also  more  difficult  to  fight  those  insects  which  get 
their  food  by  sucking  than  it  is  those  which  bite.  The 
buffalo  tree  hopper  combines  both  of  these  characteristics, 
so  that  from  the  nature  of  the  case  we  may  expect  it  to 
be  a  difficult  insect  to  overcome  by  artificial  applica- 
tions. The  fact  however  that  the  insect  develops  upon 
succulent  vegetation   rather  than  in   the  orchard  itself, 


74  INSECTS   AND  INSECTICIDES 

and  the  fact  that  it  is  most  destructive  in  orchards  where 
weeds  and  tender  herbage  are  abundant,  indicate  that 
clean  culture  will  prove  an  important  method  of  preven- 
tion. Mr.  C.  L.  Marlatt,  who  has  carefully  studied  the 
species,  writes  :  ^'  The  limiting  of  the  amount  of  foreign 
vegetation  about  and  in  orchards  and  nurseries  is  an  ex- 
cellent precaution,  and  little  damage  maybe  anticipated 
where  the  ground  between  the  trees  is  kej)t  clean  and  con- 
stantly cultivated.  The  larvae  and  pupae  under  these 
conditions  will  be  starved  out."  The  pruning  of  trees 
which  are  badly  infested  is  also  recommended. 


INJURING  THE   BUDS   AND   LEAVES 

The  Bud  Worm 

Tmetocera  ocellana 

There  is  evidence  to  show  that  this  insect  was  intro- 
duced to  America  from  Europe  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. It  now  occurs  over  a  large  portion  of  Canada  and 
the  United  States,  and  sometimes  is  very  destructive 
over  wide  areas,  occasionally  becoming  the  most  serious 
orchard  pest  of  the  season.  As  soon  in  spring  as  the 
buds  begin  to  open,  the  little  caterpillars  may  com- 
mence work  upon  them,  gnawing  the  miniature  leaves 
and  blossoms,  but  the  attack  is  more  likely  to  begin  after 
the  buds  about  half  open.  The  larvae  then  eat  out  the 
centers  of  the  buds,  where  the  leaves  and  flowers  are 
least  developed.  The  caterpillar  forms  for  itself  a  pro- 
tecting case  by  using  silken  threads  to  bind  together  the 
leaves.  As  the  season  advances  some  of  the  leaves  are 
killed,  become  detached  at  the  base,  and  turn  brown  ; 
the  blossoms  also  are  more  or  less  webbed,  so  that  the 
smaller  branches  present  an  appearance  similar  to  the 
accompanying  illustration.     (Fig.  30. ) 


THE    BUD    WOEM 


75 


The  life  history  of  this  insect  may  be  summarized 
as  follows  :  The  moths  appear  in  the  orchard  early  in 
summer ;  during  daylight  they  rest  upon  the  bark  of 
trees  or  other  shelter;  at  night  they  fly  about  and  de- 
posit their  eggs,  one  in  a  place  on  the  underside  of  the 
leaves.  About  ten  days  later  these  eggs  hatch  into 
small  green  larvae,  which  feed  upon  the  epidermis  of  the 


FIG.  30.     WORK  OF  BUD  WOEM  AMOXG  OPENING    LEAVES. 

leaves,  each  making  for  itself  a  silken  tube  and  a  thin 
layer  of  silk  for  protection  and  concealment.  In  a  day 
or  two  the  green  color  changes  to  brown. 

"As  the  larva  increases  in  size  and  the  area  over 
which  it  feeds  becomes  larger,  the  tube  is  enlarged  and 
lengthened  along  the  midrib,  sometimes  becoming  nearly 


76 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


one  inch  in  length.  The  silken  web  under  which  the 
larva  feeds  covers  the  entire  field  of  operations,  but  is 
so  thin  near  the  edges  where  the  larva  has  last  fed  as  to 

be  scarcely  visi- 
ble. Th.e  excre- 
ment of  the  larva 
being  retained  by 
the  web  appears 
little  black 
pellets  scattered 
here  and  there 
over  the  feeding 

FIG.  31.     APPLE  LEAF    SHOWING  WORK  OF  YOUNG  grOUnd.  ThC 

BUD  WORM.  gi-een  portion  of 

only  one  side  of  the  leaf  is  eaten,  the  veins  and  veinlets 
being  left  untouched ;  these  and  the  green  on  the  oppo- 
site side  die  and  turn  brown,  and  thus  become  conspicu- 
ous (Fig.  31). 

Late  in  summer  or  early  in  autumn  the  half-grown 
caterpillars  desert  the  leaves  and  crawl  upon  the  twigs, 
where  tliey  form 
little  silken  cases, 
generally  near  the 
buds  or  in  creases 
m  the  bark. 
(Fig.  32.)  In 
these  they  remain 
throughout    the  ^ 

■    f    '        TTi      -P  1    ^^^'  ^'^'    '^^^^S  showing  the  position  of  the  win- 
Wmter.        ine  lOl-     ^^j.  jjomes  of  the  larvae  at  a,  a,  and  b,  natural 

lowing     spring    size. 

they  emerge  to  feed  upon  the  opening  leaves.  They 
again  make  tubes,  which  serve  as  protective  cases.  After 
feeding  six  or  seven  weeks  they  become  full-grown  ;  then 
they  form  silken  cocoons,  generally  in  a  rolled  leaf  or 


*M.  V.  Slingerland. 


THE    BUD    WORM 


77 


between  two  leaves,  in  which  they  change  to  pupae,  to 
emerge  a  short  time  later  as  moths. 

Tlie  full-grown  larvae  are  cinnamon  brown  in  color 
with  the  legs,  head,  and  shield  behind  dead  black.     They 


FIG.  33.  BUD  WORM,    a,  pupa,  front  view;  b,  pupa,  back  view;  c,  larva. 
Magnified. 

are  about  half  an  inch  long  and  of  the  general  form 
shown  in  Fig.  33,  c.  The  moth  (Fig.  34)  has  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  common  codling  moth.  It  is  dark 
ashen  gray  with  creamy 
white  blotches  on  the 
front  wings,  which  expand 
a  little  more  than  half  an 
inch. 

Remedies. — These  fig.  34.  bud- worm  moth. 
little  pests  can  most  successfully  be  destroyed  by  spraying 
with  the  arsenites  early  in  spring  when  the  buds  are 
opening  and  the  larvae  just  beginning  the  season's  work. 
It  is  advisable  to  use  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris 
green  combination  in  order  to  prevent  injury  by  apple 
scab  or  other  fungous  maladies  as  well  as  by  insects. 


78 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


The  Apple  Aphis 

Aphis  mail 

During  spring  and  early  summer,  one  often  finds 
the  leaves  and  tender  twigs  of  apple  trees  covered  with 
small  green  lice  or  aphides.  These  are  the  insects  known 
as  the  apple  ajihis.     They  injure  the  trees  by  sucking 

the  sap  through  their  tiny 
beaks.  So  far  as  we  now 
know  it,  the  life  history  of 
these  insects  is  as  follows  : 
The  lice  hatch  from  eggs  in 
spring  as  soon  as  the  leaf 
buds  begin  to  expand,  and 
increase  with  marvelous  ra- 
pidity, so  that  almost  as  fast 
as  the  leaves  develop  there 
are  colonies  of  the  plant  lice 
FIG.  35.  APPLE  APHIS.  Much  to  occupy  them.  They  con- 
maguified.  tinuc  breeding  on  a^yjAe  until 

July,  when  they  largely  leave  the  trees  and  migrate  to 
grasses  and  other  plants.  Here,  apparently,  they  con- 
tinue breeding  above  ground  until  autumn,  when  they 
return  to  the  apple,  and  the  winged  females  may  be 
found  establishing  colonies  of  the  wingless,  egg-laying 
form  upon  the  leaves.  The  males  are  apparently  devel- 
oped on  grass,  along  with  the  winged  females.  The 
small,  oval  eggs  are  now  laid  on  the  twigs  and  buds,  and 
the  cycle  for  tlie  year  is  complete. 

Remedies. — These  lice  have  various  natural  ene- 
mies that  destroy  them — especially  the  ladybird  beetles 
— but  it  IS  often  necessary  to  spray  infested  trees  with 
kerosene  emulsion,  fish-oil  soap,  or  a  strong  tobacco  de- 
coction to  get  rid  of  them.  The  earlier  the  application 
is  made  the  better  ;  the  best  time  is  just  after  the  aphi- 
des have  hatched  from  the  eggs  in  sirring. 


THE   CAKKERWORM 


79 


The  Cankerworm 

A  niso2)teryx  pometaria 

Apple  orchards  are  occasionally  infested  in  spring  by 
a  looping  caterj)i]lar,  or  ^^ measuring  worm,"  that  feeds 
upon  the  parenchyma  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the  network 
of  veins,  so  that  the  foliage  looks  brown  and  scorched. 
These  are  cankerworm s,  of  which,  according  to  Dr. 
Riley's  observations,  we  have  two  distinct  species.  But 
both  are  similar  in  habits  and  injuries,  and  for  the 
present  purpose  only  one  will  be  discussed.  This  is 
called  the  fall  cankerworm. 

If,  during  the  winter  or  early  spring  months,  one 
examines  the  branches  of  apple  trees  in  orchards  where 
this  insect  has  been  at 
work,  he  will  find  com- 
pact masses  of  a  hun- 
dred or  more  small, 
cylindrical  eggs  like 
that  shown  at  e,  Fig.  36. 
About  the  time  the 
leaves  begin  to  come 
out,  these  eggs  hatch 
into  small,  looping  cat- 
erpillars that  feed  upon 
the  foliage.  They  con- fi«-  sg 
tinue  feeding  and  grow 
ing  for  several  weeks,  when  they  become  full-grown, 
and  look  like  /,  Fig.  36.  They  are  about  an  inch  long, 
quite  slender,  and  vary  from  a  greenish-yellow  to  a  dark 
brown  color.  The  cankerworm  then  either  crawls  down 
the  tree  to  the  ground,  or  lets  itself  down,  spider-like, 
on  a  silken  thread.  There  it  burrows  into  the  soil  three 
or  four  inches,  where  it  spins  a  silken  cocoon,  within 
which  it  changes  to  the  pupal  or  chrysalis  state  {g),  re- 
maining in  this  condition  until  autumn,  when  it  emerges 
as  a  moth. 


C'ANKEKWOKM.    a,  male  moth  ; 
b,  female  moth  ;  e,  eggs ;  /,  larva;  g,  pupa. 


80  Il^SECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 

The  two  sexes  of  these  cankerworm  moths  differ 
greatly.  The  male  (a)  has  large,  well-developed  wings, 
while  the  female  (b)  is  wingless.  The  latter  is  of  an 
ashy  gray  color.  When  she  emerges  from  the  chrysahs 
state  she  crawls  to  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  ascends  the 
trunk  some  distance.  Here  the  male  finds  her,  and  after 
mating  she  begins  the  deposition  of  eggs.  These  are 
placed  on  the  twigs  or  branches  of  the  tree. 

The  other  cankerworm  {Anisopteryx  vernata)  is 
similar  to  this  in  habits,  but  most  of  the  moths  appear  in 
the  spring  rather  than  autumn.  Hence  it  is  commonly 
called  the  spring  cankerworm. 

Besides  apple,  these  insects  feed  upon  elm,  cherry, 
plum  and  various  other  fruit  and  shade  trees. 

Remedies. — There  are  various  natural  enemies 
that  prey  upon  these  cankerworms ;  these  include  both 
birds  and  predaceous  or  parasitic  insects.  The  simplest 
artificial  remedy  is  to  spray  the  trees,  soon  after  the 
worms  hatch,  with  Paris  green  or  London  purple — a 
pound  to  two  hundred  gallons  of  water,  or  stronger  if 
lime  is  added.  Or  the  ascent  of  the  egg-laying  moths 
may  be  prevented  by  apiDlying  tar,  or  printer's  ink,  or 
some  such  substance,  about  the  base  of  the  tree — putting 
it  on  a  band  of  paper  if  there  is  fear  of  injuring  the  tree 
by  applying  it  directly  to  the  bark.  There  are  also  vari- 
ous collars  of  metal  tliat  are  manufactured  to  jDlace 
around  the  tree  and  prevent  the  moths  going  up.  But 
spraying  is  simpler  and  more  effectual  than  any  of  these. 


THE  APPLE  TREE  TENT  CATERPILLAR 


81 


The  Apple=tree  Tent  Caterpillar 

Clisiocampa  americana 

One  often  finds  in  May  or  June,  on  the  limbs  of 
apple  and  wild  cherry  trees,  compact  silken  nests,  or 
tents,  containing  a  considerable  number  of  handsome 
caterpillars.      These  are  the  insects  which  have  been 


FIG.  37.     TENT  CATERPILLAR. 

a,  6,  larva;  c,  eggs,  with  covering  removed;  d,  cocoon. 

known  for  many  years  as  tent  caterpillars.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  during  July,  in  compact  masses  of  two  or 
three  hundred  each,  upon  the  twigs,  as  shown  at  c,  Fig. 
37.  After  they  are  laid  the  parent  moth  covers  them 
with  a  viscid  liquid,  which  dries  into  a  sort  of  varnish 
that  completely  coats  them.  The  insect  remains  in  this 
6 


82  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

egg  state  from  July  until  the  following  spring,  when  the 
little  caterpillars  emerge  from  the  eggs  and  begin  feed- 
ing upon  the  tender  foliage  of  the  bnds  about  them.  In 
a  few  days  they  begin  to  make  a  silken  tent,  utilizing 
generally,  for  this  purpose,  a  fork  of  the  branch.  As 
time  goes  on  the  nest  is  enlarged.  The  caterpillars 
retire  to  the  tent  at  night,  and  during  cold  and  wet 
weather,  and  when  not  feeding.  They  have  regular 
times  for  their  meals,  leaving  and  returning  to  the  nest 
in  processions.  They  become  full-grown  in  about  six 
weeks,  being  extremely  voracious  during  the  latter  part 
of  their  development.  They  are  then  nearly  two  inches 
long,  with  a  hairy  body  ornamented  with  a  distinct 
white  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  on  each  side 
of  which  are  numerous  short,  yellow,  longitudinal  lines, 
rather  irregularly  arranged.  The  sides  are  partially 
covered  with  paler  lines,  spotted  and  streaked  with  blue, 
while  the  lower  surface  of  the  body  is  black.  The  full- 
grown  caterpillar  is  represented  at  a  and  i,  Fig.  37. 

Most  of  the  caterpillars  leave  the  tree  where  their 
nest  is,  as  fast  as  they  become  full-grown,  and  crawl 

about  in  search  of  a  suit- 
able shelter  to  pupate  in. 
Having  found  this — be- 
neath a  board,  or  in  the 
cracks  of  a  fence — they 
spin  an  oval,  silken  cocoon 

FIG.  38.     MOTH  OF  TENT  CATERPILLAR.  /^\         yelloW      wllCU       COm- 

pleted,  within  which  they  change  to  the  pupal  or  chrys- 
alis state.  In  two  or  three  weeks  another  change  takes 
place,  and  from  the  cocoons  come  forth  reddish-brown 
•moths,  the  females  of  the  size  and  form  represented  at 
Fig.  38.  These  moths  pair  and  in  a  short  time  deposit 
the  clusters  of  eggs,  after  which  they  soon  die.  Thus 
there  is  but  one  brood  each  season. 

Remedies. — It  is  usually  easy  to  destroy  the  nests 
of  this  insect,  either  by  cuttino:  and  burning  the  infested 


THE    LESSER    APPLE    LEAF    ROLLER 


83 


branch,  or  using  a  torch  made  by  saturating  a  piece  of 
cloth,  tied  to  the  end  of  a  stick,  with  kerosene.  In 
either  case  the  operation  should  be  performed  early  in 
the  morning,  before  the  insects  have  left  the  tent,  or  in 
the  evening  after  they  have  returned.  Spraying  witli 
Paris  green  is  also  an  effectual  remedy.  There  are  cer- 
tain parasites  preying  upon  this  insect  that  aid  greatly 
in  keeping  it  in  check. 

The  Lesser  Apple=leaf  Roller 

Teras  minuta 

This  is  a  greenish-yellow,  slightly  hairy  worm, 
about  half  an  inch  long,  affecting  the  young  leaves  of 
the  terminal  twigs,  with  which  the  insect  forms  a  pro- 
tective case.  It  is  especially  injurious  in  nurseries  and 
young  orchards. 

This  species  is  remarkable  in  that  two  of  the  three 
broods  of  moths  which  appear  during  the  year  are  of  a 
bright  orange  color,  while 
those  of  the  third  brood  are 
reddish -gray.  It  is  an  ex- 
ample of  what  naturalists 
call  dimorphism. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in 
the  spring  on  the  unfolding 
leaves  of  apple,  cranberry, 
whortleberry  and  possibly 
other  plants,  the  larvce  soon 
hatching  to  devour  the  ten- 
der foliage,  some  of  which 
they  roll  into  a  protective  covering.  Here  they  continue 
feeding  for  about  a  month,  when  they  pupate  within  the 
folded  leaves,  and  a  week  or  so  later  emerge  as  small, 
orange-yellow  moths.  These  moths  lay  eggs  for  another 
brood  of  larvge,  the  images  from  which  appear  in  August, 


FIG.  39.      LESSER    LEAF    ROLLER, 
larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  moth;  d,  roUed 
leaf. 


84 


IN^SECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


being  also  of  the  same  orange  color.  These  in  turn  lay 
eggs  for  a  third  brood  of  worms,  which  develoj^  during 
September,  and  emerge  during  October  as  glistening  red- 
dish-gray moths,  which  pass  the  winter  in  rubbish  heaps, 
fence  corners  and  similar  places  of  concealment,  and 
deposit  eggs  on  the  unfolding  leaves  of  the  various  food 
plants  of  the  larva  the  following  spring.  Thus  this 
remarkable  cycle  of  insect  life  is  completed. 

Remedies. — In  fruiting  orchards  that  are  regularly 
sprayed  with  the  arsenites  to  i^revent  codling  moth  in- 
jury, this  insect  is  not  likely  to  prove  troublesome,  but 
in  nurseries  and  young  orchards  it  is  frequently  quite 
destructive.  Spraying  with  the  arsenites  is  probably  as 
promising  as  any  general  remedy  in  these  cases,  though 
the  experience  of  nurserymen  has  shown  that  on  young 
nursery  stock  the  insect  may  advantageously  be  destroyed 
by  hiring  boys  to  crush  the  larvae  within  their  cases. 

The  Yellow= necked  Apple=tree  Caterpillar 

Datana  ministra 
During  the  latter  part  of   summer  the   orchardist 
occasionally  finds  one  or  more  limbs  of  his  apple  trees 


FIG.  40.     YELLOW-NECKED  CATERPIL,L,AR. 
«,  larva;  h,  moth;  c,  eggs;  d,  magnified  egg. 

entirely  denuded  of  their  foliage  by  a  troop  of  large, 
strii)ed  caterpillars,  like  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  40,  a. 
These  are  the  progeny  of  a  set  of  eggs  (c,  d)  laid  during 


THE    LEAF    CRUMPLER  85 

June  or  July  by  a  large  moth  (b)  with  a  chestnut-brown 
thorax,  and  light-brown  wings  striped  with  brown  of  a 
darker  shade.  The  very  young  larvae  feed  only  upon  the 
parenchyma  of  the  leaf,  leaving  a  network  of  bare  veins, 
but  they  soon  grow  large  enough  to  eat  veins  and  all. 
Tliey  are  gregarious,  feeding  together  and  denuding  the 
limb  as  they  go.  When  at  rest  or  alarmed  they  assume 
the  peculiar  position  shown  in  the  figure.  They  become 
full-grown  in  about  six  weeks,  when  they  descend  to  the 
ground  and  burrow  into  the  soil  three  or  four  inches, 
where  they  change  to  the  pupal  state.  They  remain  in 
this  condition  until  the  following  summer,  when  they 
emerge  again  as  moths.  Consequently  there  is  but  one 
brood  a  year. 

Remedies. ^-Birds  and  various  insect  enemies  prey 
upon  this  caterpillar  to  such  an  extent  that  it  rarely  be- 
comes iujurious.  When  it  does,  however,  it  may  easily 
be  destroyed  by  spraying  the  infested  trees  with  Paris 
green  in  water  mixture,  or  by  cutting  and  burning  the 
twigs  on  which  the  larvae  are  feeding. 

The  Leaf  Grumpier 

Phycis  indigenella 

One  often  finds  during  the  winter  months  upon  the 
twigs  of  various  fruit  trees,  masses  of  dry,  brown  leaves 
that,  when  pulled  apart,  are  seen  to  surround  a  long, 
tubular,  horn-like  case.  If  one  of  these  cases  be  care- 
fully cut  open  it  will  be  found  to  contain  a  brownish 
worm  or  caterpillar,  about  half  an  inch  long.  This  in- 
sect is  the  leaf  crumpler,  and  it  often  becomes  one  of 
the  most  injurious  of  orchard  pests. 

The  adult  insect  is  a  small  grayish  moth  (Fig.  41, 
d)  that  appears  during  June  or  July,  and  deposits  eggs 
on  the  various  trees  that  serve  as  food  plants  for  the 
larvae.  These  include  the  apple,  quince,  and  possibly  the 
peach,  as  well  as  both  the  wild  and  cultivated  varieties 


86 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


of  the  cherry,  plum,  and  crab  apple.  From  these  eggs 
there  soon  hatch  small,  brownish  worms  that  construct 
tubular,  silken  cases  (a)  within  which  they  remain  con- 
cealed when  not  eating.  As  they  grow  larger  they  draw 
about  the  openings  of  their  abodes  many  partially  eaten 
leaves,  so  that  by  autumn  there  is  quite  a  bunch  sur- 
rounding each  case  (b).  At  the  aj)proach  of  cold  weather 
the  cases  are  attached  to  the  twigs  Dy  means  of  silken 
threads,  the  larvae  frequently  gnawing  away  the  tender 
bark  to  insure  a  firm  hold;  and  thus  the  winter  is  passed. 


FIG.  41.     LEAF  CRUMPLER. 

a,  larval  case;  h,  larval  case  with  dead  leaves;  c,  front  part  of  larva; 
d,  moth,  maiiiiified. 

As  soon  m  sprmg  as  the  leaves  begin  to  appear,  the  larvae 
attack  them,  frequently  eating  out  the  flower  buds  as 
well.  They  continue  feeding  and  growing  until  some 
time  in  June,  when  they  become  pupae,  pupating  within 
the  cases.  About  a  fortnight  later  the  moths  emerge, 
and  thus  the  life  cycle  is  completed. 


THE    APPLE    LEAF    SKELETOI^IZER  87 

There  are  several  species  of  parasites  that  prey  upon 
the  leaf  crumjoler,  whicli  greatly  assist  iu  keeping  it  in 
check. 

Remedies.  —  In  young  orchards  the  larval  cases 
are  easily  picked  off  during  the  winter.  They  may  be 
burned,  or  what  is  probably  better,  carried  to  a  consid- 
erable distance  from  their  food  plants  and  left  on  the 
ground,  thus  allowing  the  parasites  to  develop  and 
escape.  Tlie  insect  is  also  liable  to  destruction  by  spray- 
ing witli  Paris  green  or  London  purple,  and  may  easily 
be  held  in  check  in  this  way.  Where  orchards  are 
sprayed  for  the  codling  moth  the  leaf  crumplers  present 
will  also  largely  be  destroyed. 

The  Apple=leaf  Skeletonizer 

Pempelia  hammondi 

This  is  a  brownish  or  greenish  larva,  one-half  inch 
long,  with  short,  scattered  hairs  upon  its  body,  which 
spins  a  web  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  and  eats 
the  parenchyma,  giving  the 
foliage  a  scorched  appear- 
ance. It  is  frequently  very 
destructive  to  apples,  espe- 
cially to  young  trees,  either 
in  the  orchard  or  nursery. 

The  life  history  of  this 
insect  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows :  The 
small  purj^lisli  moths  (Fig. 
42,  d),  having  two  light 
bands  upon  the  front  wings,  fig.  42.  leaf  skeletoxizer. 
and  expanding  scarcely  half «.  ii^i'va;  6,  part  of  back,  magni- 

^      •       1      T        ji      •  -1         fled    to   show    markinsrs;    c,   head 

aninch,  lay  their  eggs,  prob-    ^,^^^  ,^.^^^,  ^,^^.,  ^,  ,—^^  '^^„^^., 
ably,  on  the  leaves  or  tender    fled;  a,  moth,  magnified. 


88  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

twigs  of  the  apple,  late  in  spring,  or  early  in  summer. 
The  larvae  soon  hatch  and  begin  to  eat  the  parenchyma 
of  the  leaves,  and  as  they  grow  older  they  spin  a  slight 
protective  silken  web  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf, 
beneath  which  they  continue  their  destructive  work. 
When  full-grown  (a)  they  vary  from  an  olive  or  pale 
green  color  to  brown,  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and 
have  four  black  shining  tubercles  on  the  back,  just  be- 
hind the  head.  About  midsummer  these  larvae  pupate 
in  slight  cocoons,  formed  usually  on  the  leaf,  and  two 
weeks  later  the  moths  emerge.  Eggs  are  laid  by  these 
for  the  second  brood  of  larvae,  which  form  cocoons  before 
winter  sets  in,  and  hibernate  as  pupae,  the  moths  from 
them  emerging  the  following  spring. 

This  species  is  very  irregular  in  its  development,  it 
being  easy  to  find  larvae  of  nearly  all  ages  almost  any 
time  during  the  season.  The  second  brood  is  usually 
much  more  numerous  than  the  first,  and  consequently 
the  injury  is  most  noticeable  in  September  and  October. 

Remedies. — Like  so  many  other  orchard  insects, 
this  pest  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  the  arsenites 
— three  or  four  ounces  of  Paris  green,  or  London  purple, 
to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

INJURING  THE   FRUIT 

The  Codling  Moth  or  Apple  Worm 

Carpocapsa  pomonella 

This  is  the  most  generally  injurious  apple  insect, 
and  is  probably  known  wherever  the  fruit  is  grown. 
The  small,  chocolate  moth  (Fig.  43,  g,  f)  deposits  its 
eggs  in  spring  in  the  blossom  end  of  the  young  apple  (5) 
before  the  latter  has  turned  down  on  its  stem.  From 
the  Qgg  there  hatches  a  minute  worm  or  caterpillar, 
which  nibbles  at  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  eats  its  way 
toward  the  core.     Here  it  continues  feeding  as  the  apple 


THE   CODLING    MOTH    OR   APPLE   WOEM 


89 


develops,  increasing  in  size,  until  at  the  end  of  three  or 
four  weeks  it  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long,  and 
appears  as  represented  at  e.  It  has  now  finished  its 
caterpillar  growth  and,  leaving  the  apple,  finds  some 
crevice  in  the  bark  where  it  sj^ins  a  rather  slight  silken 
cocoon,  in  which  it  changes  to  a  pupa.  It  remains  in 
this  condition  about 
a  fortnight,  when  it 
emerges  as  a  moth 
like  the  one  by 
which  the  original 
egg  was  laid.  Thus 
the  life  cycle  is  com- 
pleted. There  are 
at  least  two  broods 
in  a  season  in  all  but 
the  most  northern 
localities. 

Re  m  e  dy  . — 
The  best  remedy  for 
this   insect   is   that 

„  .  .  .      ,      FIG.  43.    CODLING  MOTH,     a,  injured  apple; 

01  spraying  with  the  &,  place  where  egg  is  laid;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa; 
arsenites  —  Paris     *>  cocoon ;  g,/,  moth ;  n,  head  of  larva. 

green  or  London  purple — in  spring,  soon  after  the  blos- 
soms have  fallen  off,  when  the  apples  are  from  the  size 
of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  hickory  nut,  and  before  they  have 
turned  downward  on  their  stems.  A  second  application, 
ten  days  or  two  weeks  after  the  first,  is  generally  advis- 
able, The  poisons  may  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  gallons  of  water,  or  bet- 
ter, combined  with  the  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  spray- 
ing should  be  done  with  some  kind  of  spraying  pump 
and  nozzle. 

Besides  destroying  the  codling  moth,  spraying  at 
the  times  indicated  will  largely  prevent  the  injuries  of 
the  various  leaf-eating  caterpillars  and  the  plum  and 
apple  curculios. 


90  INSECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 

The  Apple  Maggot 

Trypeta  pomonella 

The  injury  of  this  insect  is  at  once  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  codling  moth  by  the  fact  that  while  the 
latter  is  largely  confined  to  the  region  of  the  core,  the 
api:)le  maggot  feeds  indiscriminately  through  the  pulp  of 
the  fruit,  burrowing  m  every  direction.  The  larvae 
themselves  are  also  different,  that  of  the  codling  moth 
having  six  legs,  while  the  apple  maggot  is  footless. 

The  adult  of  the  apple  maggot  is  a  two-winged  fly 
that  appears  early  in  summer  and  deposits  eggs  in  the 
partially  grown  apples.  These  eggs  are  inserted,  one  in 
a  place,  through  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  In  a  few  days 
they  hatch  into  maggots,  that  tunnel  the  fruit  in  all 
directions,  becoming  full-grown  in  five  or  six  weeks, 
when  they  are  whitish  or  greenish  white,  and  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  long.  They  then  leave  the  fruit,  and 
generally  go  into  the  soil  an  inch  or  less,  where  they 
change  to  the  pupal  state.  They  remain  in  this  condi- 
tion until  the  following  summer,  when  they  emerge  as 
flies  again. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  an  exceedingly  difficult 
pest  to  contend  with.  Fortunately,  as  yet,  it  is  only 
seriously  injurious  in  comparatively  few  States.  As  a 
rule,  having,  however,  many  excej^tions,  it  seems  to  be 
more  liable  to  infest  early  than  late  varieties  of  ajiples. 
The  only  thorough-going  remedy  is  that  of  destroying 
infested  fruit,  especially  windfalls.  Observations  made 
in  Maine  by  Professor  Harvey  show  that  the  flies  travel 
little  from  tree  to  tree,  or  orchard  to  orchard,  so  that 
"the  checking  of  the  pest  is  largely  an  individual  mat- 
ter, to  be  worked  out  independently  in  each  orchard." 
Unfortunately  this  insect  cannot  be  destroyed  by  spraying. 


92 


INSECTS  AKD   INSECTICIDES 


FIG.  44.     APPLE  CURCULIO. 
Magnified. 


The  Apple  Curculio 

Anthonomous  quadrigibus 

This  insect  in  its  adult  state  is  represented  magni- 
fied at  Fig.  44,  c  showing  a  hack  view  and  h  a  side  view, 
while  the  natural  size  is  represented  by  the  small  figure 

II  a  at  the  left  of  h.     This  is 

^1  a  beetle  related  to  the  plum 

VIv  curculio  but  having  a  longer 
■  "w  A  -X^  snout.  It  is  dull  brown  in 
^^M^^  color  and  has  four  tubercles, 
f^//^\  or  humps,  on  the  hinder  por- 
JJ^^^JL,  tion  of  its  back.  Before  the 
f^HDri  general  cultivation  of  the 
^  wWp»  ^  improved  varieties  of  apple, 
it  bred  in  wild  crabs  and 
haws.  The  adult  beetles 
drill  holes  in  young  apples,  both  for  food  and  the  depo- 
sition of  eggs.  The  latter  are  laid  at;  the  bottom  of  the 
cavity,  and  soon  hatch  into  grubs  or  larvae  that  feed  upon 
the  pulp  of  the  fruit. 
They  usually  penetrate 
to  the  core,  where  they 
continue  feeding  four  or 
five  weeks.  They  then 
become  full-grown  as 
larvae,  and  appear  when 
masrnified  like  ¥\^.  45,  l,  ^  <^ 

'^  1    •,•    ,        FIG.  45.      APPLE    CUKCULIO.    a,    pupa; 

bemg     footless,      whitish  6,  larva.     Magnified. 

grubs.  The  larva  pupates  within  the  cavity  of  the  apple 
where  it  has  developed,  the  pupa  being  represented, 
magnified,  at  Fig.  45,  a,  and  two  or  three  weeks  later  it 
again  changes,  this  time  emerging  as  a  perfect  beetle, 
which  gnaws  its  way  out  through  the  fruit.  There  is 
but  one  brood  each  year,  the  insect  hibernating  in  the 


OTHER   APPLE    IKSECTS  93 

beetle  state.  The  fruit  attacked  by  tliis  and  other  cur- 
culios  becomes  dwarfed,  gnarly  and  ill-shapen,  as  shown 
in  Plate  VI. 

Remedies. — The  feeding  and  egg-laying  habits  of 
the  adult  of  this  insect  render  it  liable  to  destruction  by 
poisoning.  Consequently  spraying  with  the  arsenites. 
as  for  the  codling  moth,  appears  to  be  a  sufficient 
remedy. 

Other  Apple  Insects 

The  apple  is  subject  to  attack  by  many  insects  be- 
sides those  discussed  in  the  foregoing  pages,  which,  how- 
ever, include  the  most  injurious  pests.  The  trunk  and 
branches  are  occasionally  infested  by  the  scurfy  bark 
louse  (which  will  be  found  described  on  a  later  page  as  a 
pear  insect) ;  the  leaves  are  sometimes  eaten  by  various 
caterpillars  beside  those  mentioned,  and  the  fruit  is  at- 
tacked by  the  plum  curculio  as  well  as  by  the  three 
species  we  have  discussed.  But  the  treatment  recom- 
mended will  keep  in  check  not  only  the  insects  included 
in  our  list,  but  also  nearly,  if  not  quite,  all  of  these 
various  other  pests. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEAR 


INJURING   THE   TRUNK 

The  Pear=tree  Borer 

Aegeria  pyri 

The  adult  of  this  insect  is  a  small,  clear-winged  moth, 
purplish  or  bluish  black  in  color,  and  having  three  pretty 
golden-yellow  bands  across  the  abdomen.  Its  eggs  are 
deposited  upon  the  bark  of  the  trunk,  and  the  larvae  feed 
upon  the  inner  bark  or  sapwood.  The  latter  are  very 
similar  to  the  grubs  of  the  peach-tree  borer,  but  are  con- 
siderably smaller.  When  full-grown  they  gnaw  almost 
through  the  outer  bark,  leaving  an  extremely  thin  layer 
to  protect  them,  and  then  change  to  the  chrysalis  state 
within  the  burrow.  A  short  time  afterAvards  the  chrysa- 
lis wriggles  through  the  burrow  to  the  outer  membra- 
nous bark,  through  which  it  pushes  its  front  end.  The 
fully  developed  moth  then  crawls  out  of  the  chrysalis, 
and,  after  drying  its  wings,  flies  away  in  search  of  com- 
panions and  the  nectar  of  flowers  upon  which  it  feeds. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  rarely  jn-esent  in  injuri- 
ous numbers,  and  consequently  usually  requires  little  or 
no  attention.  The  larvae  are  said  to  throw  out  fine,  saw- 
dust-like castings,  by  which  their  presence  may  be  de- 
tected. When  this  happens  they  should  be  carefully  cut 
out  with  a  sharp  knife.  Painting  the  bark  with  the 
soft  soap  and  carbolic  acid  mixture  mentioned  on  Page 
G4  is  also  recommended. 

94 


THE    SAN    JOSE    SCALE  95 

INJURING  THE   BRANCHES 

The  Scurfy   Bark  Louse 

Chio?iaspis  furfur  us 

During  the  winter  months  the  bark  of  pear  and 
apple  trees  is  frequently  more  or  less  covered  by  small, 
flattened,  whitish,  oval  scales,  beneath  which  are  numer- 
ous minute  purple  eggs.  These  are  the  scales  of  the 
female  scurfy  bark  louse,  an  insect  that  seems  to  be 
more  destructive  in  the  Southern  and  Central  States 
than  at  the  North.  It  is  probably  a  native  of  America, 
having  been  known  to  the  earliest  American  entomolo- 
gists, and  is  supposed  to  have  fed  on  wild  crab  apples 
before  the  introduction  of  improved  fruit  trees.  The 
scales  of  the  male  louse  are  much  narrower  than  those 
of  the  female. 

During  May  or  June  the  eggs  beneath  these  scales 
hatch  into  small  purplish  or  reddish-brown  lice,  that 
crawl  about  over  the  bark  for  a  few  days,  and  finally 
insert  their  tiny  beaks  to  suck  the  sap.  Having  thus 
fixed  themselves  they  gradually  develop,  until  by  fall 
the  females  have  become  very  broad  and  flat.  The  eggs 
are  deposited  beneath  the  scale,  and  remain  in  this  posi- 
tion until  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — The  treatment  recommended  on  a 
previous  page  (p.  69)  for  the  oyster-shell  bark  louse,  is 
equally  applicable  to  the  present  species. 

The  San  Jose  Scale 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus 

This  insect  is  related  to  the  common  oyster-shell 
bark  louse,  but  can  at  once  be  distinguished  from  the 
latter  by  the  characteristic  round  scale — as  shown  at  h, 
Fig.  46. 


96 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


It  infests  practically  all  kinds  of  deciduous  fruit 
trees  and  if  unmolested  is  liable  to  kill  them.  It  was 
introduced  into  California  from  Chile  about  1870,  since 
when  it  has  spread  oyer  a  large  portion  of  the  Pacific 


FIG.  46.     SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

a,  pear,  moderately  infested— natural  size;  b,  female  scale— enlarged. 

slope;  and  has  lately  appeared  in  the  Eastern  States, 
where  it  threatens  to  do  much  damage. 

Mr.  L.  0.  Howard  describes  the  San  Jos6  scale  as 
''perfectly  round,  or  at  most  yery  slightly  elongated  or 
irregular.     It  is  flat,  pressed  close  to  the  bark,  resem- 


THE   SAN   JOSE   SCALE 


^7 


bles  the  bark  of  the  twigs  in  color,  and  when  fully  grown 
is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  At  or  near 
the  middle  of  each  scale  is  a  small,  round,  slightly  elon- 
gated black  point ;  or  this  point  may  sometimes  appear 
yellowish.  When  occurring  upon  the  bark  of  the  twigs 
or  leaves  and  in  large  numbers,  the  scales  lie  close  to 
each  other,  frequently  overlapping,  and  are  at  such 
times  difficult  to  distinguish  without  a  magnifying  glass. 
The  general  appear- 
ance which  they  pre- 
sent is  of  a  grayish, 
very  slightly  rough- 
ened scurfy  deposit 
(Fig.  47).  The  nat- 
ural rich  reddish 
color  of  the  limbs  of 
the  peach  and  apple 
is  quite  obscured 
when  these  trees  are 
thickly  infested,  and 
they  have  then  every 
appearance  of  being 
coated  with  lime  or 
ashes.  "When  the 
scales  are  crushed  by^i^.  47.   g^^,  j^^.^  .,  , ,,       ,^  ..„,  ,,^^,,^^^ 

scraping,  a   yellowish       with  scales  in  situ— natural  size;  en- 
•  1       T       •-]         -n  larged  scales  above,  at  left. 

Oily   liquid   will    ap- 
pear,  resulting  from  the   crushing   of   the  soft  yellow 
insects  beneatTi  the  scales,  and  this  will  at  once  indicate 
to  one  who  is  not  familiar  with  their  appearance  the 
existence  of  healthy  living  scales  on  the  trees." 

The  young  scale  lice  come  out  from  beneath  the 
female  scales,  in  spring,  soon  after  the  unfolding  of  the 
leaves.  They  are  minute  yellowish  creatures,  resembling 
Fig.  48  when  highly  magnified ;  they  crawl  about  over 
the  bark  a  short  time,  and  finally  fasten  themselves  to 
7 


98 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


it,  generally  on  the  new  growth,  where  they  secrete  a 
scale  and  there  develop.  Some  of  them  mature  into 
little  two-winged  creatures,  resembling,  when  magnified, 
Fig.  50 ;  these  are  the  males ;  others  develop  into  fe- 
males, which  do  not  become  winged  but  remain  on  the 
bark  in  a  fixed  position.  In  the  bodies  of  these  the 
young  are  produced,  as  shown  in  Fig.  49. 

When  the  San  Jose  scale  occurs  upon  older  trees,  it 
is   most  likely  to  be  found   on  the  twigs  and  smaller 


--^^^^m^^^^^JBi 


FIG.  48.    SAN  JOSK  SCALE,    a,  young  larva— greatly  enlarged ;    b,  an- 
tenna of  same— still  more  enlarged. 

limbs,  bnt  npon  young  trees  it  may  occur  over  the  whole 
surface.  But  it  does  not  confine  its  attacks  to  the  bark, 
for  the  leaves  and  fruit  are  often  infested ;  upon  the 
latter  there  is  a  very  characteristic  purplish  ring  around 
each  scale.  These  rings  are  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  46. 
^'TJpon  the  leaves  the  insects  have  a  tendency  to  collect 


THE   SAN"   JOSE   SCALE  99 

along  the  midrib,  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  in  one 
or  more  quite  regular  rows,  and  also  to  some  extent  along 
the  side  ribs.  The  infested  leaves  turn  brown,  but  do 
not  have  a  tendency  to  fall  as  a  result  of  the  damage." 

This  pest  is  most  likely  to  be  introduced  into  new 
localities  upon  nursery  stock  imported  from  infested 
regions.     This  is  believed  to  be  the  way  in  which  it  was 


FIG.  49.     SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

c,  adult  female  containing  young— greatly  enlarged;  d,  anal  fringe  of 

same— still  more  enlarged. 

first  brought  to  the  Eastern  States.  It  is  also  likely  to 
be  carried  upon  fruit  sent  to  market.  In  a  given  local- 
ity the  insects  are  most  likely  to  be  carried  from  tree  to 
tree  and  orchard  to  orchard  by  the  young  lice  crawling 
upon  insects  and  birds  and  then  crawling  off  after  they 
have  lit  upon  other  trees.  They  may  also  be  blown 
about  by  the  wind. 


100 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


The  young  lice  are  easily  destroyed  by  spraying  with 
kerosene  emulsion.  But  in  cases  where  the  insect  is 
first  introduced  to  a  new  locality,  the  infested  trees 
should  be  burned  to  check  the  outbreak. 

Concerning  this,  Mr.  L.  0.  Howard,  entomologist  to 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says:  ''The 
principal  mode  of  spread  is  by  commerce  in  nursery  stock, 
cuttings  and  fruit.     The  time  will  come  in  the  immedi- 


FIG.  50.    SAN  JOSE  SCALE.    Male  adiilt^greatly  enlarged. 

ate  future  when  some  kind  of  quarantine  regulations  will 
have  to  be  established  by  States  or  by  large  fruit-growing 
districts.  Should  this  species  already  have  obtained  the 
firm  foothold  in  the  East  which  we  suspect,  New  York, 
Michigan  and  other  States  in  which  the  pomological 
interests  are  great,  should  immediately,  by  act  of  legis- 
lature, establish  quarantine  regulations  similar  to  those 
in  force  at  the  present  time  in  the  State  of  California. 
In  the  meantime  no  orchardist  should  admit  a  single 


THE  PEAR  TEEE  SLUG  101 

young  fruit  tree,  or  a  single  cutting,  or  a  single  bud, 
from  a  distance  into  liis  orchard,  without  first  carefully 
examining  it  and  satisfying  himself  absolutely  that  it 
does  not  carry  a  single  specimen  of  the  San  Jose  scale. 
If  this  plan  is  adopted  by  every  one  interested,  and  with- 
out exce2)tion,  the  rate  of  spread  of  the  species  can  be 
limited  to  the  natural  spread  by  crawling,  by  winds,  and 
by  the  aid  of  other  insects  and  birds. 

"  We  wish  particularly  to  impress  upon  the  minds 
of  fruit  growers  that  as  soon  as  this  insect  is  found  to 
occur  in  an  orchard  the  most  strenuous  measures  must 
be  taken  to  stamp  it  out.  No  halfway  measures  will 
suffice.  The  individual  must  remember  that  not  only 
are  his  own  interests  vitally  at  stake,  but  those  of  the 
entire  community  in  which  he  resides.  Trees  badly  in- 
fested should  be  instantly  burned,  as  previously  stated. 
The  individual  may  think  that  he  cannot  bear  the  Ibss, 
but  the  loss  in  consequence  of  the  slightest  neglect  Vill 
be  much  greater.  The  fact,  too,  that  there  is  a  commu- 
nity of  interests  among  fruit  growers  in  this  matter  must 
not  be  lost  sight  of.  Fruit  growers  must  be  mutually 
helpful  in  an  emergency  like  this.^' 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Pear=tree  Slug 

Selandria  cerasi 

The  leaves  of  pear,  cherry,  quince  and  plum  trees 
are  frequently  attacked  during  June  and  July  by  a  green- 
ish-black, slimy  slug,  that  eats  the  parenchyma  off  the 
upper  surface.  This  is  the  pear  or  cherry  slug.  It  orig- 
inates from  eggs  laid  early  in  June,  in  the  leaf,  by  a  four- 
winged  black  fly  (shown  slightly  magnified  at  Fig.  51). 
The  eggs  hatch  about  two  weeks  after  they  are  deposited, 
and  the  larvae  become  full-grown  in  four  or  five  weeks. 
They  are  then  nearly  half  an  inch  long,  and  of  the  form 


102  INSECTS   AND   IN'ECTICIDES 

represented  at  Fig.  51.  They  now  shed  their  slimy  skins, 
appearing  in  a  clean  yellow  suit  that  is  not  sticky,  and 
shortly  afterwards  leave  the  tree.  Having  reached  the 
ground  they  enter  the  soil  two  or  three  inches,  and  form 
an  oval  cavity  in  the  earth,  which  they  line  with  a  glossy 
secretion.  The  larval  skin  is  now  cast,  and  the  insect 
becomes  a  pupa.  About  a  fortnight  later  it  again 
changes,  this  time  to  a  four-winged  fly,  that  escapes  to 
continue  the  propagation  of  tlie  species.     There  are  two 


FIG.  51.     PEAR-TREE  SLUG. 

broods  each  season  in  the  Northern  States,  the  first 
brood  of  larvge  appearing  in  June  and  the  second  in 
August.     The  winter  is  passed  in  the  cocoons. 

Remedies. — This  pear  slug  is  very  easy  to  destroy, 
and  should  be  checked  as  soon  after  it  begins  operations 
as  possible.  Spraying  with  the  arsenites,  or  i:)yretlirum, 
or  hellebore,  is  a  simple  and  effectual  remedy.  Or  these 
substances  may  be  dusted  on  with  a  powder  bellows. 

The  Pear=leaf  Mite 

Phytophis  pyri 

The  leaves  of  the  pear  are  sometimes  noticed  in 
spring  to  have  small  reddish  spots  upon  their  upper  sur- 
face. As  the  season  advances  these  spots  become  darker 
colored,  and  finally  appear  almost  black,  the  tissues  of 
the  leaf  where  they  are  being  dry  and  dead.  This  dis- 
ease is  called  the  pear-leaf  blister  and  is  caused  by  the 
pear-leaf  mite,  an  extremely  minute  creature,  related  to 
the  red  spider  found  in  greenhouses. 


THE    PEAR    LEAF   MITE  103 

Mr.  M.  V.  Slingerland  describes  in  detail  the  symp- 
toms of  the  malady  as  follows:  '^The  disease  appears 
on  the  jiear  leaves  before  they  are  fully  expanded  from 
the  bud  in  spring,  in  the  form  of  red  blister-like  spots  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter.  During  this  red 
stage  of  the  disease  the  spots  are  more  conspicuous  on 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves.  About  June  first  the 
spots  gradually  change  to  a  green  color  hardly  distin- 
guishable from  the  unaffected  portions  of  the  leaf  ;  this 
change  takes 
place  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  leaf 
first,and  the  spots 
may  thus  be  red 
above  and  green 
below.  In  this 
green  stage,  which  fig.  52.  peak-leaf  mite.  Magnified, 
seems  to  have  been  overlooked,  the  badly  diseased  leaves 
present  a  slightly  thicker,  corky  appearance ;  otherwise 
the  disease  is  not  readily  apparent,  esj^ecially  where  not 
severe.  This  green  stage  lasts  about  a  week  or  ten  days, 
and  about  June  fifteenth  the  spots  may  be  found  chang- 
ing to  a  dark  brown  color,  beginning  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  leaf.  The  tissue  of  the  diseased  parts  or  spots 
then  presents  a  dead,  dry,  brown  or  black,  corky  appear- 
ance. The  spots  are  also  more  conspicuous  on  the  lower 
side,  and  remain  unchanged  until  the  leaves  fall  in  the 
autumn.  They  occur  either  singly,  scattered  over  the 
surface  of  the  leaves,  or  often  coalesce,  forming  large 
blotches  which  sometimes  involve  a  large  portion  of  the 
leaf." 

The  authors  of  this  mischief  are  extremely  minute 
eight-legged  mites  which  resemble  when  magnified  Fig. 
53.  Mr.  Slingerland  who  has  studied  the  species  most 
carefully  thus  describes  its  life  history  :  '^The  exceed- 
ingly minute  oval  grayish  eggs  are  laid  by  the  females  in 


THE   PEAR   LEAF   MITE  105 

the  spring  within  the  galls  that  they  have  formed,  and 
here  the  young  are  hatched.  How  long  they  remain 
within  the  gall  of  their  parent  has  not  been  ascertained. 
But  sooner  or  later  they  escape  through  the  opening  in 


/ 

K-'.':-^  ■- .      .  , ■         .  ■    >     .       ■  ,„,;.„    ,r-  ■'^--     ■  -■■■     -  ■    -  ■    '- 


FIG.  53.     PORTION  OF  LOWER  SIDE  OF    INFESTED  LEAF,  SHOWING 
GALLS   CONSIDERABLY  IVIAGNIFIED. 

it,  and  seeking  the  healthy  part  of  a  leaf,  or  more  often 
crawling  to  the  tenderer  leaves  of  the  new  growth,  they 
work  their  way  into  the  tissue,  and  new  galls  are  thus 
started.  In  this  manner  the  galls  on  a  tree  are  often 
rapidly  multiplied  during  the  summer.     The  mites  Uve 


106 


IKSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


within  the  galls,  feeding  upon  the  plant  cells,  until  the 
drying  of  the  leaves  in  the  autumn.  They  then  leave 
the  galls  through  the  openings  and  migrate  to  the  winter 
buds  at  or  near  the  ends  of  the  twigs.  Here  they  work 
g  their  way  beneath  the 

two  or  three  outer 
scales  of  the  buds 
where  they  remain 
during  the  winter. 
Fifteen  or  twenty 
may  often  be  found 

FIG.   54.     SECTION    OF    I.EAF    SHOWING  GALL  -,  •         ,         ,        . 

IN  RED  STAGE.  «  n,  normal  leaf;  o,  open- ^^^^^^    ^    Single     DUQ 
ingof  gall;  e,  eggs.    (After  Sorauer.)  SCalc.       In    this    posi- 

tion they  are  ready  for  business  in  the  spring  as  soon  as 
growth  begins ;  and  they  doubtless  do  get  to  work  early, 
for  their  red  galls  are  already  conspicuous  before  the 
leaves  get  unrolled. 

"The  mites  instinctively  migrate  from  the  leaves  as 
soon  as  the  latter  become  dry.     Whenever  branches  were 


FIG.   55.     SECTION    OF    TEE     LEAF    SHOWING    STRUCTURE    OF    GALL    IN 

AUTUMN,  g,  gall ;  n,  normal  leaf ;  o,  opening  of  gall. 

brought  into  the  insectary,  as  soon  as  the  leaves  began 
to  dry  the  mites  left  them  and  gathered  in  great  num- 
bers in  the  buds.  It  is  impossible  to  accurately  estimate 
the  number  of  mites  that  may  live  in  the  galls  on  a  single 
leaf.  Sections  of  galls  made  while  in  their  red  stage 
would  seldom  cut  through  more  than  two  or  three  mites  ; 
but  sections  of  the  brown  galls  often  showed  four  or  five 
times  as  many.  Thus  on  a  badly  infested  leaf  there  is 
without  doubt  at  least  a  thousand  of  the  mites." 


THE    PEAR   TREE    PSYLLA  107 

Remedies. — Until  recently  this  pest  lias  been  diffi- 
cult to  fight.  So  long  as  it  remains  in  the  tissues  of  the 
leaves  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  insecticides,  and  as  it 
deserts  the  leaves  before  they  fall,  gatliering  and  burning 
them  in  autumn  will  do  little  or  no  good.  It  has  lately 
been  demonstrated  by  Mr.  Slingerland,  however,  that 
the  pest  may  be  successfully  kept  in  check  by  a  single 
spraying  in  winter  with  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with 
five  to  seven  parts  of  water.  The  trees  should  be 
thoroughly  treated. 

The  Pear=tree  Psylla 

Psylla  pyj'icola 

This  is  an  extremely  minute  insect,  which  during 
recent  years  has  done  great  damage  to  pear  orchards  in 
several  Eastern  States.  It  was  apparently  introduced 
into  Connecticut  early  in  the  present  i 
century ;  since  then  it  has  spread  west 
to  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Illinois,  south 
to  New  York  and  New  Jersey,  and 
probably  over  much  of  New  England, 
though  here  it  has  been  reported  as  de- 
structive only  in  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut. 

The  adult  pear  psylla  is  a  small, 
jumping  louse  about  one-tenth  of  an 
inch  long,  resembling,  when  magnified,  fig.  56.  pear 
Fig.  56.  It  has  four  nearly  transparent  psylla.  Magnified. 
wings,  and  is  reddish  with  transverse  dark  stripes  on 
the  abdomen.  There  are  two  distinct  forms.  The  sum- 
mer broods  are  much  lighter  in  color  than  the  brood 
which  passes  through  the  winter.  This  difference  is  so 
great  that  the  two  forms  were  considered  distinct  species 
until  the  life  history  was  carefully  worked  out  by  Mr. 
M.  V.  Slingerland. 


108  INSECTS   AN^D   INSECTICIDES 

The  dark  form  passes  througli  the  winter  in  some 
sheltered  situation  about  the  tree,  such  as  beneath  loose 
bark  or  in  the  crevices  between  the  branches.  In  early 
spring  they  come  forth  from  their  hiding  places  and  de- 
posit their  eggs  about  the  buds  and  on  rough  bark. 
These  eggs  are  yery  small,  and  of  the  extraordinary  form 
represented  in  Fig.  57.  When  first  deposited  they  are 
yellowish,  but  turn  dark  soon  afterwards.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  three  or  four  weeks,  the  time  depending  largely 
on  weather  conditions.  The  young  psyllas,  which  during 
their  immature  stages  are  called  nymphs,  crawl  to  the 
stalks  of  the  unfolding  leaves,  in  which  they  insert  their 
tiny  beaks  to  suck  out  the  sap.  They  grow  rapidly, 
occasionally  molting  or  shedding  their  skins  to  provide 
for  their  increase  in  size,  and  in  the  course  of  a  month 
become  mature. 

The  first  summer  brood  thus  developed  deposits 
eggs  on  the  undersides  of  the  leaves.  These  eggs  hatch 
ten  days  later,  and  mature  in  about 
three  weeks.  The  insects  of  the  sec- 
ond brood  suck  the  sap  from  the 
FIG.  57.  EGG.  Magnified.  Jeaves.  There  are  several  of  these 
summer  broods,  the  number  varying  with  the  locality 
and  length  of  season.  In  early  autumn  the  dark,  hiber- 
nating winter  form  is  developed. 

The  sap  which  passes  through  the  bodies  of  these 
little  creatures  is  ejected  on  the  foliage,  and  forms  the 
so-called  ^'honeydew."  Where  the  insects  are  very 
numerous  this  becomes  very  abundant,  falling  in  show- 
ers when  the  branches  are  disturbed.  After  the  honey- 
dew  has  been  present  for  some  time  a  peculiar  black 
fungus  develops  upon  it,  and  gives  the  tree  a  sooty 
appearance. 

Mr.  Slingerland  makes  the  following  statement  con- 
cerning the  indications  of  the  presence  of  the  pest : 
*'Among  the  first  indications  that  pear  growers,   who 


THE   PEAR   MIDGE  109 

suffered  from  this  pest  in  1891,  had  of  its  presence,  was 
the  noticeably  lessened  vitality  of  their  trees  early  in  the 
season.  Old  trees,  especially,  put  forth  but  little  new 
growth.  Where  new  growth  started,  in  many  cases  the 
shoots  began  to  droop  and  wither  in  May,  as  if  from  a 
loss  of  sap.  A  little  later  whole  trees  put  on  a  sickly 
appearance ;  the  leaves  turned  yellow  and  the  fruit  grew 
but  little.  By  midsummer  nearly  all  the  leaves  and 
half-formed  fruit  fell  from  many  trees." 

Remedies. — This  insect  can  be  destroyed  by  spray- 
ing in  spring,  after  the  eggs  hatch  out  and  before  the 
first  brood  matures,  with  kerosene  emulsion  diluted  with 
twenty-five  parts  of  water.  This  is  a  simple  and  satis- 
factory remedy ;  if  applied  soon  after  a  shower  has 
washed  off  much  of  the  honeydew,  it  is  more  effective. 

INJURING  THE  FRUIT 

The  Pear  flidge 

Diplosis  pyrivora 

This  insect  appears  to  have  been  introduced  into 
America  about  1 877,  being  first  noticed  in  Connecticut. 
It  has  since  spread  into  a  number  of  neighboring  States, 
and  has  become  in  many  localities  the  most  destructive 
enemy  of  the  pear.  The  adult  is  a  small  mosquito-like 
grayish  fly  (Fig.  59,  6')  having  a  slender  body,  long  legs, 
and  a  long  ovipositor  projecting  from  the  end  of  the 
abdomen.  These  flies  api^ear  in  the  pear  orchard  in 
early  spring,  even  before  the  blossoms  open,  and  con- 
tinue present  about  ten  days.  As  soon  as  the  blossoms 
open  sufficiently  for  the  insect  to  insert  its  ovipositor, 
the  eggs — often  nearly  a  dozen  in  number — are  depos- 
ited inside  the  blossom  envelopes.  Three  or  four  days 
later  the  eggs  hatch  into  little  maggots  which  enter  the 
open  ovary  of  the  embryo  fruit,  where  they  feed  upon 
the  growing  tissues,   gnawing  and  rasping  it  in  such  a 


110 


INSECTS    AND    INSECTICIDES 


manner  as  to  destroy  the  core  and  seeds,  and  canse  the 
fruits  to  become  dwarfed  and  deformed.  Such  pears  are 
ill-shapen  in  outer  appearance,  as  shown  in  the  series 
represented  in  Fig.  58.  The  midge  maggots  at  first  are 
whitish  in  color,  but  they  soon  become  orange  or  reddish. 
They  become  full-grown  early  in  summer ;  they  are  then 
^ 'about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  in  length,  pointed  towards 
each  extremity,  yellow  in  color,  with  a  brown,  horny 
breastbone    on   the    underside  just    behind   the    head. 


FIG.  58.  PEAR  MIDGE  INJURY,  a,  Uninjured  young  pear;  6,  infested 
pear  cut  open  to  show  midge  larvce;  c,  d,  e,f,  outlines  of  infested 
fruits. 

The  segments  of  the  body  are  well  marked,  and  when 
removed  from  the  infested  fruit  they  move  about  quite 
rapidly,  bending  themselves  quite  double  by  drawing  the 
tail  forward  until  it  touches  the  head,  and  then  jerking 
or  springing  upward  and  outward  several  inches  at  a 
time.  When  they  are  full-grown  they  remain  in  the 
fruit  until  there  comes  a  rain,  wdiich  causes  a  rapid 
decay  and  a  cracking  open  of  the  infested  fruit. 
Through  the  openings  so  made  they  emerge  and  drop  to 
the  ground."*     They  then  enter  the  soil  an  inch  or  two 


*J.  B.  Smith. 


THE   PEAE   MIDGE 


111 


where  somewhat  hiter  they  make  oval  cocoons  of  silk 
mixe^  with  particles  of  earth  or  sand ;  in  these  cocoons 
they  remain  apparently  unchanged  until  the  following 
spring  when  they  become  pupae  and  shortly  afterwards 
again  change  to  adult  flies. 

These  midges  appear  to  have  decided  i^references 
among  yarieties  of  pears,  the  Lawi-ence  being  the  favorite. 

Remedies. — The  only  stage  at  which  this  insect  is 
liable  to  injury  without  detriment  to  the  trees  is  when 
the  larvae  are  in  the  ground.     Professor  J.  B.  Smith  of 


FIG.  59.    PEAR  MIDGE,    a,  larva ;  6,  pupa ;  c,  parent  fly.    Magnified. 

New  Jersey  has  found  that  they  then  can  be  destroyed  to 
advantage  by  the  application  of  kainit,  applied  about  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  ground  beneath  the  trees,  at  the 
rate  of  1000  pounds  to  the  acre.  This  is  dissolved  by 
the  soil  moisture  and  causes  the  death  of  the  naked 
midge  larvae.  In  case  an  orchard  is  generally  infested 
Professor  Smith  recommends  the  following  practice : 
'^ ^Cultivate  as  usual,  or  if  the  orchard  is  in  grass  or 
clover,  plow  under  after  June  15th,  as  soon  as  may  be. 
Top-dress   with   kainit,    1,000  pounds   to   the   acre,  to 


112  mSECTS   AN'D   INSECTICIDES 

benefit  trees  as  well  as  to  kill  insects.  As  soon  as  proper, 
say  early  in  August,  sow  crimson  clover.  This  will  use 
up  the  potash  not  required  by  the  fruit  trees,  and  will 
store  nitrogen,  as  well  as  occupy  the  ground.  Early  in 
the  following  spring  turn  this  sod  under  as  deeply  as 
may  be  proper.  It  should  be  done  before  the  pear  buds 
are  developed,  in  order  to  head  off  and  destroy  any 
midges  then  iii  the  pupal  state  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil." 

The  Codling  Moth  and  Plum  Curculio 

In  most  regions  these  pests  are  the  worst  insect 
enemies  of  the  fruit  of  the  pear.  To  the  first  is  due  the 
'^worminess"  that  spoils  so  large  a  j^ortion  of  the  crop, 
and  to  the  second  a  large  part  of  tlie  gnarly,  knotty  fruit 
that  is  so  often  seen.  Spraying  with  Paris  green  is  for- 
tunately an  effectual  preventive  of  the  injuries  of  both. 

Other  Pear  Insects 

The  trunk  of  the  pear  tree  is  subject  to  attack  from 
both  the  round-headed  and  flat-headed  apple-tree  borers. 
The  remedies  mentioned  as  ai:)pli cable  to  the  apple  are 
equally  so  to  the  pear.  The  branches  are  sometimes  in- 
fested by  the  oyster-shell  bark  louse,  the  pear-tree  bark 
louse  {Lecanium  pyri),  as  well  as  the  pear-blight  beetle 
(Xylehorus  2:)yri),  and  the  fruit-bark  beetle  {Scolytus 
rugulosiis).  The  leaves  are  also  liable  to  attack  from  a 
great  variety  of  caterpillars,  which,  however,  are  seldom 
seriously  injurious. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PLUM 


INJURING    THE    BARK 

The  American   PIum=tree  Borer 

Euzophera  semifuneralis 

Plum  trees  are  occasionally  attacked  by  small,  dusky 
caterpillar-like  borers,  having  reddish  heads  and  being 
sparsely  furnished  with  long  hairs.  They  are  most 
likely  to  infest  the  upper  portion  of  the  trunk  and  the 
bases  of  the  larger  branches.  It  is  the  larva  of  a  small 
moth  that  appears  in  May  and  June,  and  probably  de- 
posits its  eggs  on  the  bark.  The  eggs  hatch  into  larvae 
that  feed  in  the  tissues  of  the  inner  bark,  sometimes 
causing  the  death  of  the  trees.  The  insect  remains  in 
the  larval  condition  through  the  winter  and  ))upates  in 
May,  to  emerge  a  little  later  as  a  moth. 

It  is  probable  that  applying  to  the  trunk  and  larger 
limbs  the  washes  recommended  for  the  apple  borer  will 
prevent  the  injuries  of  this  pest. 

The  plum  is  also  subject  to  attack  by  the  peach-tree 
borer  and  another  closely  related  species  {Sannina  picti- 
pes)  that  breeds  in  wild  cherry.  The  soap  washes  are 
believed  to  prevent  their  depredations  also.  When  the 
borers  are  present  they  may  be  cut  out  with  a  sharp 
knife. 


113 


114 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


INJURING   THE    LEAVES 

The  Plum  Scale 

Lecanium  sp. 

In  several  widely  separated  localities  attention  has 
been  called  to  a  large  scale  insect  affecting  plums,  which 
in  some  regions  has  become  quite  destructive.  The  ap- 
pearance of  the  insect  on  the  branches  is  well  shown  in 
the  lower  part  of  Fig.  60.     Beneath  each  of  these  scales 


Fig.  60.    Plum  branch  showing  young  scales  in  hibernation  near  large 

mother  shells;  leaves  with  young  scales  along  veins,  as  they 

appear  in  summer. 

there  are  deposited  early  in  summer  a  large  number  of 
small  white  eggs — each  female  being  said  to  lay  a  thou- 
sand or  more  eggs.  A  month  later  these  eggs  hatch  into 
tiny  creatures  that  wander  to  the  leaves,  where  they  in- 


THE   PLUM   TREE   APHIS  115 

sert  their  beaks  and  suck  out  the  vegetable  juices ;  some 
of  these  young  lice  are  represented  in  the  upjDcr  part  of 
Fig.  GO.  They  produce  a  great  amount  of  the  so-called 
"  honeydew  "  while  on  the  leaves.  Early  in  autumn  they 
migrate  to  the  undersides  of  the  twigs,  where  they  j^ass 
the  winter. 

Remedies. — '^' The  way  to  combat  this  pest  is  to 
spray  the  infested  trees  several  times,  at  least  twice  in 
winter  or  before  April,  first  with  kerosene  emulsiou 
(standard  formula)  diluted  with  four  parts  of  w^ater. 
Always  bear  in  mind  that  each  little  scale  must  be  hit 
with  the  liquid.  Do  not  let  the  pest  get  started  in  force 
m  April ;  if  it  does  you  cannot  fight  it  effectively  until 
about  July  first.  Then  the  young  are  hatching,  and 
while  they  are  wandering  about  on  the  branches  for  a  few 
days,  they  can  be  successfully  destroyed  by  the  emulsion 
diluted  even  six  or  eight  times.  If  these  young  scales 
get  established  on  the  leaves  in  July,  they  will  be  beyond 
control  with  a  spray  until  November.  But  the  moment 
the  leaves  fall,  begin  the  work  of  destruction  on  the  ten- 
der hibernating  scales  then  exposed  on  the  bark.  Thor- 
oughness must  be  the  watchword  if  this  new  and  most 
serious  enemy  is  to  be  checked." — [Slingerland.] 

The  Plum=tree  Aphis 

Aphis  prunifoUi 
The  leaves  of  plum  trees  are  frequently  crowded  in 
spring  by  small,  dark-colored,  soft-bodied  insects  that 
suck  out  the  sap,  and  give  the  terminal  portion  of  the 
twigs  a  malformed  appearance.  These  are  aphides  or 
plant  lice.  Two  or  three  species  are  known  to  infest  the 
plum,  one  of  which  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  C.  V.  Eiley 
to  migi-ate  during  summer  to  the  hop  plant.  The  life 
histories  of  the  others  are  not  very  well  known.  In  a 
general  way  they  are  similar  to  the  apple  aphis  described 
on  a  previous  page. 


116  IXSECTS   AXD   IXSECTICIDES 

Remedies. — S23rajing  with  kerosene  emulsion  is 
the  most  effectiTe  remedy  for  this  insect.  The  applica- 
tion should  be  made  with  a  force  pump  and  spray  noz- 
zle, and  as  soon  after  the  insects  are  noticed  as  possible. 

Plum=leaf  Caterpillars 

There  are  several  kinds  of  caterpillars  that  occa- 
sionally attack  the  plum,  but  they  rarely  occur  in  sufiQ- 
cient  numbers  to  do  serious  injury.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  the  plum  catocala  {Catocala  ultronea),  the  poly- 
phemus  moth  {Telea  polypliemus),  the  horned  span- 
worm  {^Xematocampa  filarnentaria),  the  plum  sj)hinx 
{Spliinx  drupiferarum),  the  gray  dagger  moth  [Apatela 
Occident alis),  and  the  disippus  butterfly  [Limenitis  dis- 
ippus).  These  insects  are  all  open  to  destruction  by 
spraying  with  the  arsenites,  and  are  not  likely  to  become 
injurious  in  orchards  regularly  sprayed  for  the  plum 
curculio. 

INJURING   THE   FRUIT 

The  Plum   Curculio 

Conotraclielus  nemipliar 

This  insect,  tlie  worst  foe  of  the  plum  grower^  is 
the  cause  of  the  ^^  worminess"  and  premature  dropping  of 
the  fruit  with  which  so  many  orchardists  are  familiar. 
Besides  plums,  it  breeds  in  peaches,  nectarines,  apricots, 
cherries,  pears  and  apples. 

The  adult  insect  (Fig.  61,  c)  appears  in  spring 
about  the  time  of  blossoming,  and  feeds  upon  the  foli 
age  and  flowers  until  the  fruit  is  well  ^'set."  It  then  at- 
tacks the  young  plums,  gnawing  at  them  to  satisfy  its 
hunger,  and  cutting  crescent-shaped  marks  in  the  skin 
to  deposit  its  eggs  {d).  In  a  short  time  these  eggs  hatch 
into  little  grubs  that  feed  upon  the  pulp  of  the  fruit, 
gradually  working  toward  the  pit.     In  a  few  weeks  they 


THE    PLUM     CURCULIO 


117 


become  full-grown  (appearing  when  magnified  like  ft),  by 
which  time  the  infested  plums  have  generally  fallen  to 
the  ground.  Thelarvse  then  leave  the  fruit,  and  enter- 
ing the  soil  a  short  distance  change  to  pupae  (b).  A 
few  weeks  later  they  again  change,  and  come  forth  as 
perfect  beetles.  But  some  of  them  enter  the  ground  so 
late  that  they  hibernate  as  pupae,  emerging  the  following- 
summer.  There  is  but  one  brood  each  season.  A  single 
female  is  able  to  deposit 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to 
two  hundred  eggs,  ten  fre- 
quently being  laid  in  a  sin- 
gle day.  Certain  parasites 
prey  upon  .this  insect,  and 
are  occasionally  sufficiently 
numerous  to  prevent  its  in- 
juries in  certain  localities. 
Remedies.  —  Ento- 
mologists have  been  di 
vided  in  opinion  as 
whether  this  insect  can 
successfully  be  destroyed  by  spraying  with  the  arsenites, 
but  the  evidence  in  hand  indicates  that  under  usual  con- 
ditions this  is  the  best  w^ay  to  fight  the  pest,  especially 
in  large  orchards.  It  has  been  conclusively  proven  that 
a  majority  of  the  curculios  in  a  sprayed  orchard  will  be 
killed  by  the  jooison,  but  the  effect  is  not  immediate. 
Consequently  there  may  be  opportunity  for  a  certain 
amount  of  oviposition  before  the  curculios  die.  When  a 
heavy  crop  of  fruit  sets,  it  is  desirable  that  a  portion  of 
it  should  be  thinned,  so  that  the  injury  of  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  plums  is  no  disadvantage.  It  is  advisable 
to  use  the  Bordeaux-arsenite  combination,  thus  avoiding 
the  injury  which  sometimes  results  when  Paris  green 
or  London  purple  alone  is  applied,  and  also  preventing 
damage  by  fungous  diseases — such  as  the  leaf  spot  and 


FIG.  61.    PLUM  crmcuLio.    a,  larva; 
to     b,  pupa;   c,    beetle— magnified ;    d, 
plum  showing  crescent  mark. 


118  INSECTS   A^-D    INSECTICIDES 

plum  rot.  Three  or  four  sprayings  are  advisable,  the 
first  just  before  the  blossoms  open,  the  second  soon  after 
the  blossoms  have  fallen,  the  third  about  ten  days  after 
the  second  and  the  fourth  about  fifteen  days  after  the 
third.  If  Paris  green  alone  is  used  (four  ounces  to  fifty 
gallons  water),  lime  should  be  added,  as  some  varieties 
of  plums  are  very  easily  injured  by  the  arsenites. 

The  other  method  of  fighting  this  insect  is  that  of 
"jarring."  This  takes  advantage  of  the  fact  that  when 
a  limb  on  which  the  curculio  is  at  work  is  suddenly  jar- 
red, the  insect  drops  to  the  ground.  A  large  sheet  is 
placed  beneath  the  tree,  and  the  latter  is  jarred  by 
striking  the  trunk  and  larger  branches  with  a  padded 
mallet.  The  curculios  fall  upon  the  sheet,  and  are 
then  collected  and  destroyed.  Instead  of  a  sheet,  most 
commercial  growers  use  a  sort  of  inverted  umbrella 
mounted  on  wheels,  which  is  run  beneath  the  tree.  It 
has  sloping  sides  down  wiiich  the  insects  roll  into  a  re- 
ceptacle in  the  center,  where  they  are  caught.  There 
are  many  patterns  of  these  catchers  in  use  in  different 
sections  of  the  country.  The  insects  are  most  easily 
caught  in  the  morning  when  the  atmosphere  is  cool.  In 
case  only  a  small  crop  of  fruit  sets  and  curculios  are 
abundant,  jarring  is  more  certain  to  save  it  than  spraying. 

The  Plum  Qouger 

Coccotorus  prunicida 

The  plum  gouger  is  most  injurious  in  the  region 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  being  rarely  or  never  found 
in  the  Eastern  States.  But  in  Iowa,  and  probably  also 
in  adjacent  States,  it  frequently  is  more  destructive  than 
the  plum  curculio,  from  which  it  differs  considerably  in 
history  and  habits.  The  adult  gouger  is  a  small  snout 
beetle,  about  the  same  size  as  the  curculio,  but  with  a 
smooth  back,  and  of  a  yellowish  or  brownish  color.     It 


THE   PLUM    GOUGER  119 

appears  about  blossoming  time,  and  soon  after  the  fruit 
sets  begins  operations  npon  it.  Instead  of  cutting  a 
crescent-shaped  mark  in  which  to  lay  its  egg,  it  gnaws 
out  a  little  cavity  beneath  the  skin,  in  which  the  egg  is 
deposited.  A  few  days  later  the  larva  hatches,  and  bur- 
rows through  the  pulp  to  the  ^^it,  gnawing  through  the 
soft  shell  to  the  ^^meaty"  portion  inside.  Here  it  con- 
tinues to  develop,  feeding  upon 
the  contents  of  the  pit,  rather  than 
the  pul})  surrounding  it.  After 
several  weeks  it  becomes  full- 
grown  ;  it  then  gnaws  a  hole 
through  the  hardening  wall  of  the 
pit,  so  it  can  escape  after  complet-  fig.  62.  plum  gouger. 
ing  its  transformations,  and  chang-  "'  P^^^ctures  on  fmit. 
es  to  the  pupal  state  inside.  A  short  time  afterwards  it 
again  changes,  this  time  to  the  adult,  and  the  beetle 
gnaws  its  way  to  the  outer  world,  hibernating  in  this 
condition.     It  is  single-brooded. 

Like  the  plum  curculio,  the  adult  plum  gouger 
gnaws  pits  in  the  fruit  for  food.  It  also  has  various 
natural  enemies  that  help  to  keep  it  in  check. 

Remedies. — One  would  suppose,  from  the  feeding 
habits  of  the  plum  gouger,  that  the  adults  were  liable  to 
destruction  by  spraying  with  the  arsenites,  but  experi- 
ments made  in  Iowa  by  Prof.  C.  P.  Gillette  do  not  con- 
firm this  opinion.  However,  the  matter  seems  not  to 
have  been  thoroughly  tested  on  a  large,  commercial 
scale.  If  spraying  is  ineffective,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  the  jarring  method. 


120  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


Other   Plum  Insects 

The  base  of  the  trunk  of  the  plum  tree  is  occasion- 
ally attacked  by  the  peach-tree  borer ;  and  the  upper 
portion  of  the  trunk  is  sometimes  infested  with  the  flat- 
headed  apple-tree  borer  and  the  fruit-bark  beetle.  The 
leaves  are  attacked  by  a  large  proportion  of  the  cater- 
pillars that  feed  on  the  foliage  of  the  apple,  as  well  as 
the  pear  or  cherry  slug,  the  grapevine  flea  beetle,  and  a 
number  of  other  insects.  But  spraying  is  a  safe  specific 
for  nearly  or  quite  all  of  these  defoliators. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  PEACH 


INJURING  THE   ROOT 

The  Peach = tree  Borer 

Sannina  exitiosa 

The  peach-tree  borer  is  a  soft,  whitish  caterpillar, 
with  a  reddish-brown  head  and  sixteen  legs.  It  hatches 
from  eggs  laid  during  the  summer  months  by  a  hand- 
some, day- flying  moth,  upon  the  bark  of  the  trunk,  at 
or  near  the  soil  surface.  After  hatching,  the  young 
larvae  burrow  through  to  the  inner  bark  and  sapwood  of 
the  larger  roots,  upon  which  they  feed,  causing  a  gummy 


a  h 

Fig.  63.    PEACH-BORER  MOTHc     a,  male;  6,  female. 

exudation  that  betrays  their  presence.  They  continue 
feeding  in  this  way  for  nearly  a  year,  being  interrupted 
of  course  during  the  winter  months,  when  they  become 
full-grown  as  larvae.  They  then  usually  approach  the 
top  of  the  ground  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the  soil  sur- 
face, and  construct  cocoons  of  the  gummy  exudation, 
their  castings,  and  silk.  Within  these  cocoons  they 
change  to  the  pupal  state,  and  three  or  four  weeks  later 
again  change  to  moths.     The  two  sexes  of  the  moths 

121 


122  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

are  represented,  natural  size,  in  Fig.  63,  a  representing  the 
male,  and  h  the  female.  These  moths  are  present  more 
or  less  all  summer ;  although  there  is  but  one  genera- 
tion a  year,  the  larvae  reach  maturity  at  such  different 
times  that  they  keep  up  a  nearly  constant  supply  of  the 
imagos.  On  this  account  one  can  find  larvae  of  various 
sizes  in  the  roots  at  almost  any  time.  This  insect  also 
occasionally  infests  the  plum. 

Remedies. — One  of  the  most  generally  practiced 
methods  of  preventing  the  injuries  of  this  insect  is  that 
of  cutting  out  the  larvae  in  the  fall  or  spring,  or  both. 
To  do  this  the  earth  is  removed  from  about  the  base  of 
the  tree,  and  wherever  the  gummy  exudation  indicates 
that  a  borer  is  at  work,  a  sharp  knife  or  wire  is  inserted 
to  kill  it.  It  IS  often  necessary  to  open  the  larval  chan- 
nels for  some  distance  before  the  depredator  is  found. 
Instead  of  digging  the  larvae  out,  some  growers  destroy 
them  by  applying  scalding  hot  water.  With  this  method 
the  earth  is  removed  as  before,  and  the  gummy  exuda- 
tions scraped  away  before  the  water  is  applied. 

Some  growers  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs  by 
mounding  the  soil  up  about  the  base  of  the  trunk  a 
foot  or  more,  late  in  spring,  removing  it  in  September. 
The  chief  objection  to  this  method  appears  to  be  that  it 
is  liable  to  make  the  bark  too  tender  to  stand  the  winter. 
Others  protect  the  base  of  the  trunk  by  fastening  paper 
or  straw  around  it,  so  as  to  cover  the  bark.  In  Virginia 
good  results  have  been  reported  from  painting  the 
trunks  with  paint  made  from  pure  white  lead  and  linseed 
oil,  about  the  thickness  for  ordinary  use.  This  is  ap- 
plied in  autumn  and  lasts  a  year,  the  earth  about  the 
base  being  scraped  away  in  order  to  apply  it  below  the 
usual  soil  surface.  A  similar  mixture,  however,  has 
been  reported  to  injure  cherry  trees,  and  I  would  advise 
that  it  be  used  cautiously,  if  at  all. 


THE  BLACK  PEACH  APHIS  123 

The  Black  Peach  Aphis 

Aphis  persicm-mger 

This  is  a  shining  black  aphis  that  occurs  in  great 
numbers  upon  the  roots,  twigs  and  leaves  of  the  peach  m 
the  Atlantic  States.  The  root-infesting  specimens  seem 
to  be  especially  injurious,  causing  an  enfeebled  condition 
of  the  tree  that  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  the 
disease  known  as  the  ^'yellows."  These  insects  repro- 
duce yiviparously,  or  by  giving  birth  to  living  young, 
and  consequently,  like  other  aphides,  they  are  able  to 
multiply  with  remarkable  rapidity.  There  are  two  forms, 
one  wingless  and  the  other  winged,  both  having  shining 
black  bodies,  and  sucking  out  the  sap  of  the  tree  through 
their  tiny  beaks. 

Remedies. — The  best  results  seem  to  have  been  at- 
tained in  fighting  the  underground  form  of  this  insect  by 
digging  into  the  soil  about  the  roots  refuse  tobacco,  either 
in  the  form  of  powder  or  stems.  Kainit  is  also  said  by 
New  Jersey  peach  growers  to  serve  a  similar  purpose. 
The  aerial  specimens  are  oi^eii  to  destruction  by  spraying 
with  kerosene  emulsion. 

INJURING  THE  TRUNK  AND  BRANCHES 

The  Fruit=bark  Beetle 

Scolytus  7'ugulosus 

This  is  a  small  beetle  which  attacks  apple,  pear, 
quince,  cherry,  plum  and  peach  trees,  by  boring  small 
holes  through  the  outer  bark  and  then  forming  burrows 
in  the  inner  bark.  It  seems  to  prefer  the  stone  fruits, 
and  more  often  seriously  injures  them  than  the  apples 
and  pears.  Many  entomologists  believe  that  these  beetles 
attack  only  diseased  trees,  but  the  observations  of  Pro- 
fessor Forbes,  who  has  studied  the  species  most  carefully, 
indicate  that  ''while  these  insects  clearly  prefer  weakened 


124 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


trees,  and  will  continue  to  breed  in  them  to  some  extent 
even  after  tliey  are  nearly  or  quite  dead,  they  neverthe- 
less may  attack  such  as  are  really  healthy  and  in  which 
the  flow  of  sap  is  teniiDorarily  restrained  by  transjolanting 
or  a  relatively  unthrifty  growth." 

I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Forbes's  Avritings  for  the 
following  account  of  the  injuries  and  life  history  of  this 
fruit-bark  beetle.  The  upper  portion  of  the  trunk  and 
bases  of  the  larger  limbs  are  most  commonly  attacked, 
but  the  injury  often  extends  to  the  branches  and  smaller 
twigs.     *'The  first  conspicuous  evidence  of  injury  to  the 


FIG.  64.  TWIG  AND  BARK  SHOWING  PUNCTURES. 

twigs  is  a  withering  of  the  leaves  and  a  shriveling  of  the 
bark  similar  to  that  caused  by  blight;  but  if  the  trunks 
and  larger  branches  be  attacked,  damage  to  the  bark  may 
go  on  for  some  time  without  manifest  effect  upon  the 
general  appearance  of  the  tree."  By  closely  examining 
the  bark  where  the  insects  are  at  work  one  will  sec  that 
it  is  blackened,  and  will  always  find  "minute  round  punc- 
tures half  or  two-thirds  the  diameter  of  the  head  of  a 
common  pin.  If  the  bark  is  cut  away  these  openings  are 
seen  to  penetrate  it,  commonly,  to  the  wood,  the  chan- 
nels usually  running  vertically  inward  ;  and  if  the  tree 


THE   FKUIT   BARK   BEETLE 


125 


be  badly  infested  the  under  surface  of  the  bark  will  be 
almost  completely  eaten  out  and  marked  by  a  network  of 
channels  of  about  the  same  diameter  as  the  small  holes 
already  mentioned."  Most  of  these  grooves  run  length- 
wise of  the  stem,  and  fur- 
row both  the  bark  and  the 
surface  of  the  wood  (Fig. 
Go).  ^^More  critical  ex- 
amination will  show  here 
and  there  a  broader  bur- 
row ;  and  from  this  cen- 
tral larger  channel  a  great 
number  of  much  smaller 
ones  will  pass  out  to  the 
right  and  left  as  closely  as 
they  can  be  placed,  in- 
creasing in  size  as  they  go, 
and  presently  changing 
direction,  so  that  those  at 
first  running  crosswise  of 


become 


longi- 


the   stem 

tudinal."  At  the  end  of 
these  smaller  channels  one 
may  often  find  a  small 
footless  grub,  the  larva  of 
the  beetle. 

These   peculiar    bur- 
rows are  made  in  the  man- 

.,  -  „       T         ^^^,       FIG.  65.     CHANNELS    OF  FRUIT-BARK 

ner  thus  described  :  ^^The  beetles. 

female  beetle,  resorting  to  the  tree,  burrows  into  the 
bark  directly  inward,  and  then,  turning  lengthwise  of 
the  bark,  digs  a  channel  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  long, — the  larger  burrow  described  above, 
called  the  breeding  chamber, — laying  eggs  to  the  right 
and  left  as  she  makes  her  way.  As  these  eggs  hatch,  the 
young  larvae,  very  small  at  first,  eat  outward  in  all  diree- 


126  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

tioiis,  forming  the  closely  placed  radiating  channels 
already  described,  enlarging  the  burrow  of  course  as  they 
increase  in  size  themselves ;  and  finally,  when  they  have 
reached  their  growth,  each  sinks  itself  into  the  sapwood 
to  a  depth  scarcely  greater  than  its  own  thickness,  stop- 
ping the  channel  behind  it  with  a  little  mass  of  wood 
fiber,  and  there  it  changes  to  the  pupal  stage.  This 
terminal  cell  is  consequently  called  the  pupal  chamber. 
In  this  little  harborage  the  adult  beetle  appears  and  eats 
its  way  out  through  an  opening  similar  to  that  by  which 
the  mother  entered  in  the  beginning." 

The  fruit-bark  beetle  is  a  small  black  insect,  with 
the  tips  of  the  legs  and  wing  covers  russet-red.  The 
larva  is  whitish  with  a  brown  head.  Both  stages  meas- 
ure about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length. 

Remedies. — The  fact  that  this  insect  attacks  un- 
thrifty and  diseased  trees  indicates  the  advisability  of 
keeping  trees  thrifty  and  healthy  by  careful  cultivation 
and  fertilization.  The  insect  passes  the  winter  in  the 
larval  state  within  the  burrows,  so  that  burning  infested 
trunks  and  branches  at  that  season  will  destroy  the  pests 
within.  It  is  also  probable  that  spraying  with  some 
adhesive  poisonous  mixture — such  as  the  Bordeaux- 
arsenite  combination — when  the  beetles  are  penetrating 
the  bark  to  deposit  eggs,  would  kill  them.  In  Indiana 
trees  sj^rayed  in  spring  with  this  combination  escaped 
injury. 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The   Peach  Aphis 

Myzus  persiccB 

This  insect  is  much  like  the  black  peach  aphis,  with 
which,  in  fact,  it  has  frequently  been  confused,  but  it 
appears  to  be  distribnted  over  a  much  wider  area,  being 
found  in  nearly  all  portions  of  the  United  States  where 
peaches  are  grown.     Like  other  aphides,  it  damages  the 


OTHEK    PEACH    IN"SECTS  127 

tree  by  sucking  out  tlie  sap  through  the  leaves  or  ten- 
der twigs.  It  is  a  soft,  blackish  little  creature  that, 
during  the  spring  and  summer  months,  reproduces  by 
giyiug  birth  to  living  young.  The  species  winters  over 
in  tiny,  black  eggs,  laid  in  September  or  October,  upon 
the  twigs  about  the  buds. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion  is 
the  best  method  of  destroying  these  little  pests. 

INJURING   THE   FRUIT 

The  Plum  Curculio 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar 

This  insect,  whose  life  history  has  already  been 
treated  of  on  page  116,  breeds  in  peaches,  as  well  as  in 
plums,  cherries,  apples  and  other  fruits.  It  is  especially 
liable  to  injure  peaches  when  there  is  a  failure  of  the 
apple  crop.  It  is  more  difficult  to  prevent  its  injuries 
on  this  crop  than  on  the  apple  or  plum,  because  ordi- 
narily it  is  impracticable  to  jar  peach  trees,  and  their 
foliage  is  so  easily  injured  by  the  arsenites  that  spraying 
must  be  done  with  great  caution,  if  at  all.  Probably 
the  safest  way  is  to  spray  with  the  Bordeaux-arsenite 
mixture.  One  or  two  sprayings,  soon  after  the  fruit  sets, 
will  probably  help  greatly  in  preventing  curculio  injury. 

Other   Peach   Insects 

The  trunk  of  the  peach  is  sometimes  infested  by  the 
flat-headed  borers  of  the  apple  and  cherry,  though  not 
often.  The  branches  are  subject  to'  the  attacks  of  the 
peach-tree  bark  louse  {Lecanium  j^ersicm)  and  the  New 
York  Aveevil  {Itliycerns  novehorace^isis)  ;  whife  the  leaves 
are  more  or  less  affected  by  a  great  variety  of  caterpillars 
which,  however,  rarely  do  any  serious  injury. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE    CHERRY 


INJURING  THE    TRUNK 

The  Flat=headed  Cherry=tree   Borer 

Dicerca  divaricata 

This  insect  is  closely  related  to  the  flat-headed  ap- 
ple-tree borer,  to  which  it  is  similar  in  life  history  and 
habits.  The  adult,  a  handsome,  brassy-  or  copper-colored 
beetle,  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch  long,  dejoosits  eggs 
during  the  summer  on  the  trunk  of  the  wild  and  culti- 
vated cherry.  These  eggs  hatch  into  larvae  that  bore 
through  the  bark  to  the  sapwood,  upon  which  they 
live.  They  gradually  grow  larger  until,  when  full 
grown,  they  pupate,  and  shortly  afterwards  again  change 
to  the  beetle  state. 

Remedies. — Fortunately  this  borer  is  rarely  seri- 
ously injurious.  Should  it  become  so,  the  treatment 
recommended  for  the  flat-headed  apple-tree  borer  would 
be  also  applicable  in  this  case. 

INJURING   THE   LEAVES 

The  Cherry  Aphis 

Myzus  cerasi 

The  twigs  and  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  the 
cherry  are  •frequently  thickly  infested  during  May  and 
June  by  small,  shining  plant  lice  that  suck  out  the  sap 
and  deform  the  leaves.  This  insect  is  the  cherry  aphis. 
It  winters  over  on  the  twigs  in  the  Qgg  state.  Early  in 
spring  the  eggs  hatch  into  young  aphides  that  crawl 

128 


THE   MAT   BEETLE  129 

upon  the  bursting  buds,  inserting  their  tiny  sap-sucking 
beaks  into  the  tissues  of  the  unfolding  leaves.  In  a 
week  or  ten  days  they  become  full-grown,  and  begin 
giving  birth  to  young  lice,  which  also  soon  develop,  and 
repeat  the  process.  In  this  way  they  increase  with  mar- 
velous rapidity.  Most  of  these  early  spring  forms  are 
wingless,  but  during  June  great  numbers  of  winged  lice 
appear,  and  late  in  June  or  early  in  July  they  leave  the 
clierry,  migrating  to  some  other  plant,  although  we  do 
not  yet  know  what  that  other  plant  is.  Here  they  con- 
tinue developing  throughout  the  summer,  and  in  autumn 
a  winged  brood  again  appears  and  migrates  back  to  the 
cherry.  These  migrants  give  birth  to  young  that  de- 
velop into  egg-laying  females,  which  deposit  small,  oval, 
shining  black  eggs  upon  the  twigs  about  the  buds. 

Remedies. — Lady  beetles  and  certain  predaceous 
and  parasitic  flies  prey  upon  these  little  pests  in  great 
numbers,  and  often  aid  materially  in  checking  their 
injuries.  The  best  artificial  remedy  is  that  of  spraying 
with  kerosene  emulsion,  early  in  the  season. 

The  May   Beetle 

Lachnosterna  fusca 

The  leaves  of  cherry  and  other  fruit  trees  are  some- 
times eaten  early  in  summer  by  the  common  May  beetle 
or  June  bug.  This  insect  is  the  parent  of  the 
mischievous  white  grub,  that  is  so  frequently  destructive 
in  meadows  and  pastures.  The  beetles  feed  upon  the 
foliage  at  night,  and  sometimes  appear  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  do  much  damage  before  their  presence  is 
discovered. 

Remedies. — Spraying  the  infested  trees  with  the 
arsenites,  Paris  green  or  London  purple,  is  the  most 
promising  method  of  preventing  thei^  injuries. 


130 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


The  Cherry=tree  Leaf  Roller 

Caccecia  cerasivorana 

One  occasionally  finds  the  leaves  of  a  cherry  twig 
fastened  together  in  a  large,  compact  nest,  inhabited  by 
numerous  yellow  caterpillars,  that  feed  upon  the  inclosed 
leaves.     This  is  the  cherry-tree  leaf  roller.     The  adult 


FIG.  66.     CHERRY  TREE  ON  WHICH    OPENING    BUDS    WERE  DESTROYED 
BY  LEAF  ROLLERS. 

is  a  small  brown  moth  which  deposits  a  large  number  of 
eggs  upon  the  twig.  The  caterpillars  on  hatching  fasten 
the  leaves  together  and  develop  within  the  tent  thus 
formed.      They  become  full-grown  about  midsummer, 


PLATE  VIII.     APPLE  TWIG  SHOWING  WORK  OF  LEAF  ROLLERS. 

6,  young  apples  gnawed  by  larvse. 


132  INSECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 

and  pupate  within  the  nest.  In  a  week  or  so  they 
are  ready  to  change  again,  and  the  pupae  work  their  way 
out  until  they  are  nearly  free  from  the  nest,  remaining 
attached  hy  the  hinder  jDortions  of  their  bodies.  The 
skin  then  splits  along  the  back  and  the  moths  come  out. 
Remedies. — These  nests  are  so  conspicuous  that  it 
is  a  simple  matter  to  cut  and  burn  the  infested  twigs, 
thus  ending  the  career  of  the  jDcsts. 

The  Fruit=tree  Leaf  Roller 

Coccecia  argyrospila 

This  is  a  widely  distributed  insect  that  appears  to 
be  most  destructive  in  the  West.  In  general  its  life 
history  is  similar  to  that  of  the  species  last  described. 
The  way  in  which  the  larvae,  which  feed  on  many  kinds 
of  trees,  roll  the  leaves  is  well  shown  in  Plate  VIII. 
The  amount  of  injury  the  insect  sometimes  does  is  shown 
by  Fig.  66,  which  represents  a  cherry  tree  defoliated  by 
the  pest.  Spraying  with  the  arsenites  is  the  best 
remedy. 

The  Pear=tree  Slug 

Erio  campa  cerasi 

This  insect  is  probably  as  destructive  to  the  cherry 
as  to  the  pear,  under  which  we  have  already  discussed  it. 
Its  life  history  on  the  two  fruits  is  similar,  and  the 
remedies  are  the  same  in  both  cases. 

INJURING  THE   FRUIT 

The  Plum  Curculio 

Co7iotrachelus  nenupliar 

This  insect,  which  has  ah-cady  been  discussed  under 
the  plum  (p.  117),  is  also  exceedingly  injurious  to  cher- 
ries.    The  latter,  liovvever,  usually  do  not  fall  off  when 


THE  PEAR  TREE  SLUG  133 

infested  by  the  ciirculio  laryae,  but  remain  on  the  tree 
until  the  fruit  ripens.  The  remedial  measures  suggested 
in  connection  with  the  plum  are  equally  applicable  to  this 
fruit. 

Other  Cherry  Insects 

There  are  a  large  number  of  caterpillars  that  feed 
upon  the  leaves  of  cherries,  but  they  rarely  do  noticeable 
injury,  and  spraying  with  the  arsenites  will  keep  nearly 
if  not  quite  all  of  them  in  check. 


a  7. 

PLATE  IX.     A  GROUP   OF  LEAF   HOPPEKS.     Magllifi.ed. 


:f>^i^t  II 


Insects  Affecting  Small  Fruits 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  STRAWBERRY 


INJURING  THE  ROOT 

The  Strawberry=root  Worms 

Paria  aterrima,   Graphops   pubescens,  and  Scelodonta 
nehulosus 

In  the  larval  stage  the  three  species  of  beetles  named 
above  feed  upon  the  fibrous  roots  of  tlie  strawberry,  often 
doing  a  great  deal  of  damage.  They  are  quite  similar  in 
life  history  and  habits,  all  depositing  eggs  about  the  base 
of  the  plant,  that  hatch  into  small  whitish  grubs.  The 
grubs  feed  upon  the  strawberry  roots,  increasing  gradu- 
ally in  size.  When  fully  grown  they  are  small  six-legged 
grubs,  w^ith  brown  heads.  They  pupate  in  earthen  cells 
in  the  soil,  and  soon  after  emerge  as  small  beetles  that 
feed  uj^on  the  foliage  of  the  strawberry,  often  doing  a 
noticeable  damage.  The  injury  of  these  insects  in  the 
larval  state  is  frequently  mistaken  for  that  of  the  straw- 
berry-crown borer — an  entirely  different  species. 

Remedies. — These  little  insects  are  difficult  to 
deal  with  on  account  of  the  underground  habits  of  the 
larvae,  and  the  different  times  of  development  of  the 
adults.  Professor  Forbes  recommends  spraying  or  dust- 
ing the  foliage  with  Paris  green  or  London  purple  occa- 
sionally, after  the  fruit  is  harvested,  to  destroy  the  leaf- 
eating  beetles.  Badly  infested  fields  should  be  plowed 
up  soon  after  the  crop  is  gathered.  Old  unused  straw- 
berry fields  should  not  be  left  as  breeding  grounds  for 
these  and  other  strawberry  pests. 

137 


138  •        INSECTS   AKD    IKSECTICIDES 

The  Strawberry=crown  Miner 

Anarsia  lineatella{9) 

This  is  a  small,  reddish  caterpillar  that  bores  the 
strawberry  crown,  making  irregular  channels  through  it 
in  all  directions.  It  becomes  fully  grown  early  in  sum- 
mer, and  changes  to  the  chrysalis  state,  to  emerge  two 
or  three  weeks  later  as  a  small,  dark  gray  moth.  Eggs 
are  deposited  by  this  moth  upon  the  crown  of  the  x)lant, 
and  soon  hatch  into  minute  larvae  that  bore  the  crown 
again,  becoming  partially  grown  before  winter,  and  hi- 
bernating within  their  burrows.  This  is  the  life  history 
of  the  species  in  Canada ;  probably  farther  south  there 
may  be  two  broods  a  year. 

Remedies. — No  successful  remedy  for  this  insect 
is  known.  Badly  infested  fields  would  probably  have  to 
be  plowed  up,  and  this  should  be  done  preferably  in  the 
fall  or  early  spring. 

The  Strawberry=crown  Borer 

Tyloderma  fragaricB 

This  insect  has  been  known  for  many  years  as  one 
of  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  the  strawberry  in  the 
great  small-fruit  fields  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
larva  (Fig.  67,  a,)  is  a  whitish,  footless,  yellow-headed 
grub  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  that  lives  in  the 
crowns  of  strawberry  plants,  frequently  hollowing  them 
out  so  much  that  the  vines  are  weakened  or  destroyed. 
The  adult  insect  is  a  small,  dark-colored  snout  beetle 
about  a  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  the  form  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  67,  Z>,  c.  It  is  unable  to  fly,  because  of 
the  rudimentary  condition  of  its  membranous  wings. 
According  to  Professor  Forbes,  **  the  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
crown  in  spriug,  being  pushed  down  among  the  bases 


THE  STEAWBERRY  CROWN  BORER        139 

of  the  leaves.  The  laryae  penetrate  the  crown  soon  after 
liatchiiig,  and  excavate  the  interior  all  snmmer,  until 
they  get  their  growth.  A  single  larva  does  not  wholly 
destroy  a  jilant,  as  it  matures  about  the  time  a  quarter  or 
a  third  of  the  substance  of  the  crown  is  devoured.  Fre- 
quently two  or  three  or  more  beetles  will  attack  a  single 
stool,  and  they  then 
leave  behind  them 
only  a  hollow  shell 
to  which  the  roots 
are  attached.  Still 
in  its  subterranean 
cavity  the  worm 
transforms  to  a 
nuna     and    in   the       ^^^'  ^'^'   strawberry-crown  borer. 

i     tr    >     '^  flj^  larva;  b,  beetle,  side  view;  c,  beetle,  back 

same    safe    retreat    view. 

effects  also  the  final  change  to  the  mature  beetle,  this 
last  transformation  occurring  all  the  way  along  from 
August  to  October,  during  a  period  of  about  two  months. 
The  beetles  all  escape  from  the  crowns  in  autamn,  but 
are  not  known  to  lay  any  eggs  until  the  following  year. 
They  pass  the  winter  as  adults  in  the  fields  infested  by 
them  as  larvae.  It  feeds  while  a  mature  insect  upon  the 
tissues  of  the  plant." 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  especially  liable  to  in- 
jure old  strawberry  fields,  or  those  which  are  replanted 
to  this  fruit  without  some  other  crop  intervening.  On 
account  of  the  inability  of  the  beetle  to  fly,  it  is  not 
likely  to  pass  from  one  plantation  to  another  to  deposit 
eggs,  and  the  isolation  of  new  plantations  from  old  ones 
is  consequently  to  be  desired.  If  the  plants  for  the  new 
field  must  be  taken  from  an  infested  patch,  they  should 
be  dug  up  as  early  as  possible,  to  guard  against  trans- 
porting eggs  or  larvae  with  them.  It  is  probable  that 
spraying  the  fields  with  the  arsenites  late  in  summer  will 
lead  to  the  poisoning  of  many  of  the  beetles,  and  that 


140 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


buraing  the  fields  after  picking  will  prove  beneficial. 
In  case  infested  patches  are  to  be  plowed  under,  this 
should  be  done  late  in  June  or  early  in  July,  to  destroy 
the  half-grown  larvae  then  present  in  the  crowns. 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The   Strawberry=leaf   Roller 

Plioxopteris  oomjAmia 

This  is  a  small,  brownish  caterpillar  that  folds  the 
leaflets  of  the  strawberry  by  bringing  the  upper  surfaces 
together  and  fastening  them  by  silken  cords   (Fig.  68), 


FIG.  68.  STRAWBERRY  LEAF  FOLDED  BY  LEAF  ROLLER. 

and  feeds  upon  their  substance  till  they  look  brown  and 
scorched.  It  is  sometimes  exceedingly  destructive,  and 
has  been  considered  by  some  entomologists  the  most  in- 
jurious of  the  insect  enemies  of  the  strawberry.     It  prob- 


THE    STRAWBERRY    LEAF    ROLLER  141 

ably  occurs  in  nearly  all  the  Northern  States  ;  and  is  also 
found  in  Europe,  where,  however,  it  does  not  prove 
troublesome.  It  hatches  from  eggs  laid  in  spring  upon 
the  strawberry  plants  by  a  small,  reddish-brown  moth, 
which  is  accurately  represented  slightly  magnified  at 
Fig.  69,  c.  The  larva  attains  its  full  grow'th  in  June, 
when  it  is  nearly  half  an  inch  long,  of  a  brownish  or 
greenish  color,  with  a  shining,  yellowish-brown   head. 

It  is  represented 
natural  size  at  Fig 
69,«;  the  head  and 
anterior  segments 
c  I  of    the  body  are 

*    '  shown  at  Z»,  and 

FIG.    69.    STRAWBERRY-LEAF   ROLLER,     a,  larva,     ,  . 

natural  size  ;  h,  front  ot  larva ;  c,  moth  ;  d,  hind  tu©    pOStCriOr    CX- 
end  of  larva ;  h,  c,  and  rf,  magnified.  trcmlty  at  d  of  the 

same  figure.  The  larva  pupates  within  the  rolled  leaf, 
and  about  midsummer  emerges  as  a  moth.  These  moths 
deposit  eggs  for  a  second  brood  of  caterpillars  that  feed 
upon  the  leaves  late  in  summer,  changing  to  pupas  early 
in  autumn,  and,  passing  the  winter  in  that  condition, 
emerge  again  as  moths  the  following  spring,  thus  com- 
pleting the  cycle  of  the  year.  In  the  Southern  States 
there  are  three,  and  possibly  four,  broods  a  year. 

Remedies. — -The  best  way  to  destroy  this  pest  is  to 
mow  the  field  soon  after  the  straw^berry  crop  is  gathered, 
and  after  leaving  it  a  day  or  two  to  become  dry,  burn  it 
over.  This  will  destroy  the  leaf  rollers  as  well  as  several 
other  kinds  of  insects,  and  the  spores  of  fungous  diseases. 
It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  scatter  a  little  stj'aw  over  the 
field  where  the  leaves  are  not  thick  enough  to  burn  well. 
The  plants  will  not  be  damaged,  but  wdll  soon  send  up  a 
new  lot  of  leaves  that  will  grow  rapidly,  and  be  free  from 
insect  and  fungus  attack.  If  for  any  reason  this 
method  is  not  desirable,  the  insects  of  the  second  brood 
may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  or  dusting  the  plants  in 
August  with  some  poisonous  insecticide. 


142 


INSECTS   AIsTD   IKSECTICIDES 


The  Strawberry  Slug 

Emphytus  maculatus 

The  transformations  of  this  insect  have  been  well 
represented  by  Dr.  Riley  at  Fig.  70.  The  four-winged 
fly  (3)  appears  in  spring  and  deposits  its  eggs  within 
the  tissues  of  the  leaf  or  stem.  The  larvae  hatch  in  a 
short  time,  and  feed  upon  the  leaf,  gnawing  small,  cir- 
cular holes  at  first,  like  those  eaten  out  of  currant  and 
gooseberry  leaves  by  young  currant  worms.  They  de- 
velop in  five  or  six  weeks  into  pale-green  worms  (4,  6) 


FIG.  70.    STRAWBERRY  SLUG.     1,2,  piipa;  3,5,  fly;  4,  6,  larva;  7,  cocoon; 
9,  egg,  magnified. 

about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long.  The  larvae  now  go 
shghtly  beneath  the  surface,  where  they  form  cocoons 
(7)  within  which  they  change  to  the  pupal  state  (1,  2), 
and  later  emerge  as  flies.  In  the  Southern  States  there 
are  two  broods  each  season,  while  at  the  North  there 
appears  to  be  but  one. 

Remedies. — The  strawberry  slug  is  especially  liable 
to  injure  young,  non-fruiting  plantations,  where  it  may 
easily  be  destroyed  by  spraying  or  dusting  with  Paris 
green.     On  fruiting  plantations  this  method  may  be  used 


THE   TARNISHED    PLANT   BUG  143 

in  localities  where  a  second  brood  of  larvse  appears  after 
the  fruit  is  gathered.  Pjrethrum  or  insect  powder  may 
be  used  in  such  cases  on  the  first  brood.  It  is  probable 
that  burning  the  fields  over  early  in  summer  after  the 
crop  is  gathered  will  help  to  hold  this  insect  in  check. 

INJURING  THE    BLOSSOMS   AND    FRUIT 

The  Tarnished   Plant  Bug 

Lygus  pratensis 

This  is  a  small  yellowdsh-brown  or  yellowish-green 
bug,  more  or  less  mottled  with  dusky,  about  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  long  (Fig.  71),  which  is  extremely  common 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  attacks  a 
great  variety  of  plants,  subsisting  upon  the  sap,  and  is 
especially  destructive  in  the  strawberry 
field  on  account  of  its  injuries  to  the 
young  fruit,  the  growth  of  which  it 
checks,  causing  an  irregular,  malformed 
appearance  known  as  '-'buttoning." 
According  to  Professor  Forbes,  "the 
adults  pass  the  winter  under  rubbish 
and  matted  vegetation  in  a  variety  of 
situations.     With    the    earliest   warm 

T  j;  •  ii  i  if       XI  T  ^^^-     "^l-       TARNISHED 

days  01  spring  they  venture  forth  and  plant  bug.  Mag- 
collect  upon  whatever  tender  vegeta-  "ified. 
tion  of  tree  or  shrub  offers  them  a  supply  of  sap  within 
the  reach  of  their  rather  slender  beaks.  On  their  food 
plants  they  lay  their  eggs.  The  young  soon  appear, 
mingled  with  the  adults,  as  early  as  the  latter  part  of 
April  and  the  first  of  May  (in  Southern  Illinois),  and 
feed  with  them  side  by  side.  By  the  middle  of  May  the 
older  individuals  have  matured,  and  tlien  all  stages  mav 
be  found  together  upon  the  same  plants ;  but  the 
winged  forms  scatter  widely,  and  in  June  and  July  are 
generally   distributed    wherever   suitable   food   occurs." 


144 


INSECTS   AKD   IKSECTICIDES 


There  are  two,  and  perhaps  more,  broods  each  season.  In 
autumn  the  adults  are  to  be  found  abundantly  upon  golden- 
rods,  sunflowers,  asters,  and  various  other  fall  flowers. 
Remedies. — As  these  bugs  obtain  their  food  by 
sucking,  they  cannot  be  destroyed  by  coating  their  food 
plants  with  poisons.  The  api^lication  of  pyrethrum  (in- 
sect powder)  has  proven  the  most  successful  remedy.  By 
means  of  a  powder  gun  it  can  be  applied  quite  readily. 
Kerosene  emulsion  also  destroys  them,  and  it  is  claimed 
that  the  bugs  can  frequently  be  collected  in  insect  nets 
with  profit. 

The  Strawberry  Weevil 

Antlio7ionms  signahis 

This  is  a  small  black  snout  beetle  of  the  form  shown 
magnified  at  Fig,   72,  a,  which   deposits  eggs  in  the 


FIG.  72.     STKAWBERRT  WEEVIL. 

a,  beetle  mag7iified ;  h,  strawberry  spray  covered  with  beetles. 

buds  of  strawberries  and  blackberries,  and  then  gnaws 
partly  through  the  stems  a  short  distance  below  the  buds. 


THE     STRAWBERRY    WEEVIL  145 

causing  the  latter  to  wilt  and  droop  (Fig.  72,  a,  I),  The 
^igg  hatches  into  a  little  grub  that  develops  in  the  bud, 
becoming  full-grown  in  a  few  weeks,  when  it  resembles, 
greatly  magnified,  Fig.  73,  d.  It  pupates  in  the  bud, 
emerging  as  a  perfect  beetle  about  fiye  weeks  after  the 
Qgg  is  laid.     The  beetles  then  migrate  to  other  flowers, 


FIG.  73.      STRAWBERRY  WEEVIL. 

a,  work  in  bud  and  stem;  c,  egg;  r/,  larva;  e,  head  of  larva;  </,  blossom 

showing  location  of  egg  on  left,  and  holes  made  by  beetle ; 

/,  pupa;  c-g,  magnified. 

soon  after  which  they  disappear  for  the  season.  There 
are  several  species  of  parasites  which  assist  in  keeping 
this  insect  in  check. 

Remedies.— Upon  this  point  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley  writes  : 
*'The  first  requisite  is  clean  culture.     All  old  strawberry 
beds  and  blackberry  plants,  wild  and  cultivated,  in  the 
10 


146  INSECTS   AKD   IKSECTICIDES 

neighborhood  of  the  bearing  vines,  should  be  destroyed. 
The  parasites  may  be  encouraged  by  collecting  the  in- 
jured buds  and  confining  them  in  a  box  or  barrel  covered 
with  fine  wire  gauze  or  bobbinet  of  a  mesh  small 
enough  to  retain  the  weevils,  but  of  sufficient  size  to  per- 
mit the  escape  of  the  parasites.  A  few  rows  of  early 
flowering,  staminate  varieties  might  be  planted  among 
beds  of  later-bearing  plants  to  serve  as  traps  for  the 
hibernating  brood,  which  could  then  be  destroyed  by 
beating  them  from  the  flowers  into  pans  of  water  to 
which  a  few  drops  of  kerosene  had  been  added.  A  per- 
fect preventive  may  be  found  in  completely  covering  the 
beds  with  frames  of  muslin  or  some  similar  light  mate- 
rial. This  covering  will  not  only  exclude  all  other  inju- 
rious insects  but  is  a  positive  benefit  to  the  berries,  which 
ripen  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier,  being  superior  in  size 
and  quality.     In  addition  it  secures  against  frost." 

Other  Strawberry  Insects 

The  strawberry  is  subject  to  attack  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  insects  besides  those  discussed  above.  The  roots 
are  often  eaten,  especially  when  new  plantations  are 
made  on  land  previously  in  grass,  by  white  grubs  ;  and 
the  stems  aie  sometimes  severed  by  various  species  of 
cutworms.  The  blossom  is  occasionally  attacked  by  a 
small  thrips  {Thrips  tritici)  that  prevents  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  fruit,  and  by  certain  caterpillars  that  devour 
it.  As  to  the  enemies  of  the  foliage,  their  name  is 
legion :  spanworms,  leaf  rollers,  army  worms,  plant  lice, 
etc.,  all  help  to  swell  the  list.  And  the  fruit  is  not 
neglected ;  it  caters  to  the  dainty  appetite  of  various 
ants,  myriapods,  bugs  and  beetles.  But  the  pests  that 
are  most  generally  and  commonly  injurious  have  been 
included  in  the  previous  pages. 

Summary  of  Treatment. — Strawberry  planta- 
tions should  be  rotated  with  other  crops  every  three,  or 


OTHER   STRAWBERRY   Ii>rSECTS  147 

in  some  cases  possibly  four,  years,  and  old  plantations 
should  never  be  left  unplowed  to  serve  as  breeding  places 
for  insect  pests.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  mow  and 
burn  over  the  field  soon  after  the  crop  is  gathered,  a 
method  by  which  many  insect  and  fungous  foes  may 
be  held  in  check.  Other  treatment  must  be  regulated 
according  to  the  insects  present  and  the  circumstances 
accompanying  the  attack. 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    CURRANTS   AND 
GOOSEBERRIES 


INJURING  THE  STEM 

The   Imported   Currant   Borer 

Sesia  tipuUformis 

This  insect  is  a  small,  wliitish  larva  that  burrows 
up  and  down  the  stems  of  currants,  weakening  them  so 
that  they  are  checked  in  growth  and  appear  stunted 
and  unhealthy.  It  hatches  from  eggs  deposited  singly, 
on  the  young  stems  near  the  buds,  early  in  summer,  by 
a  beautiful,  clear- winged,  wasp-like  moth,  with  a  bluish- 
black  body,  and  three  golden-yellow  transverse  bauds 
across  the  abdomen.  It  measures  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 
expanded  wings  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The 
wings  are  transparent  except  at  the  borders,  where  they 
are  brownish-black. 

A  few  days  after  the  egg  is  deposited  it  hatches  into 
a  small  larva  that  gnaws  through  the  stem  to  the  cen- 
ter, where  it  feeds  on  the  pith.  It  continues  so  to  do  all 
summer,  making  a  burrow  several  inches  in  length. 
When  full  grown  the  larva  eats  nearly  through  the  stem 
wall,  leaving  only  the  membranous  outer  bark,  and  then 
changes  to  a  chrysalis  within  the  burrow.  When  the 
chrysalis  is  ready  to  transform  it  wriggles  partially  out 
of  this  opening,  bursting  through  the  layer  of  membra- 
nous bark.  It  then  rests  halfway  out,  its  skin  splits 
open  in  front  and  the  moth  crawls  out,  leaving  a  mere 
shell  behind.      The  moth  dries  and  expands  its  wings, 

148 


THE  IMPORTED  CURRANT  WORM 


149 


and  flies  away.     There  is  but  one  brood  a  year.     The 
gooseberry  is  only  occasionally  attacked  by  this  pest. 

Remedies. — Cutting  and  burning  infested  stems 
in  the  spring  before  the  moths  emerge,  is  the  only 
practicable  remedy  that  has  yet  been  suggested. 

INJURING  THE  LEAVES 

The  Imported  Currant  Worm 

Nematus  ventricosus 

This  insect  is  supposed  to  have  been  imported  into 
America  from   Europe  about   1858,   since  when  it  has 


FIG.  74.     CURRANT-WORM  FLY. 
o,  male ;  b,  female.    Magnified. 


FIG.  75.     CURRANT  LEAF  WITH    EGGS 
OF  CURRANT  WORJf. 


spread  over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States,  and 
has  become  the  most  destructive  currant  insect. 

Early  in  spring  the  four-winged  flies  (Fig.  74) 
emerge  from  the  tough  brown  cocoons  in  which  they 
have  hibernated,  and  deposit  rows  of  small,  whitish, 
glassy  eggs  on  the  principal  veins  of  the  undersides  of 


150 


INSECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 


the  lower  leaves  (Fig.  75,  1).  In  about  ten  days  the  small 
worms  hatch  and  eat  circular  holes  in  the  leaf,  as  shown 
at  2  and  3,  Fig.  75.  At  first  these  larvae  are  whitish  in 
color ;  they  soon  change  to  green,   then  to  green  with 

numerous  black 
spots,  and  at  last 
back  again  to  a 
plain  light  green, 
with  a  tinge  of 
yellow  at  the 
sides  and  ends. 
They  are  shown 
at  different  ages 
at  Fig.  76.  The 
full-grown  larvsB 
spin  tough  brown 
cocoons,  beneath 
the  leaves  and 
rubbish  at  the 
surface  of  the 
ground,  wifchin  which  they  change  to  pupae.  From  these 
cocoons  the  flies  emerge  early  in  summer,  to  lay  eggs  for 
a  second  brood  of  worms.  As  before  indicated,  the 
winter  is  passed  within  the  cocoons,  beneath  the  bushes. 
Remedies. — Hellebore  is  the  best  remedy  for  this 
pest.  It  may  be  applied  as  a  dry  powder,  or  in  water — 
one  ounce  to  three  gallons.  The  bushes  should  be 
treated  soon  after  the  small  holes  appear  in  the  lower 
leaves,  and  again  about  ten  days  later. 


FIG.  76.     CURRANT  WORMS  EATING  LEAVES. 


THE    CUEKANT   APHIS  151 

The  Currant=Ieaf   Hopper 

Empoa  albopida 

This  is  a  small,  j^ale-greeii  insect,  about  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  long,  that  occurs  upon  the  under  surfaces  of 
the  leaves  of  currants  and  gooseberries  during  May  and 
June.  They  suck  out  the  substance  by  means  of  their 
tiny  beaks,  which  causes 
white  spots  to  appear  on 
the  uj^per  surface  of  the 
leaf.  This  same  insect 
also  occurs  upon  a   large 

number   of   other   plants,  f  Swl%   I 

sometimes  being  quite  in- 
jurious   to    young    apple 
trees.     The  chief  damage 
is  done  by  the  first  brood,  fig.  76a.  curkant-leaf  hoppek. 
the    insects     leaving    the  Magnmeci. 

bushes  early  in  the  summer,  probably  preferring  at  this 
time  the  more  succulent  foliage  of  other  plants. 

Remedies. — Spraying  or  dusting  infested  bushes 
with  pyrethrum  or  insect  powder  will  destroy  these  little 
pests,  provided  it  is  done  before  they  acquire  wings. 
Tobacco  powder  is  also  said  by  many  horticulturists  to 
be  an  eflBcient  remedy. 

The  Currant   Aphis 

Myzus  riUs 

This  is  a  small,  yellowish  aphis  that  is  found  on  the 
undersides  of  curled  and  blistered  currant  leaves  early  in 
summer.  Such  leaves  are  generally  tinged  with  red 
above.  The  insects  apparently  migrate  to  some  other 
plant  during  the  summer,  returning  to  the  currant  in 
autumn,  and  depositing  small  black  eggs  upon  the 
stems,  especially  about  the  buds. 


152 


IlfSECTS   AiTD   INSECTICIDES 


Remedies. — On  account  of  the  deformed  condition 
of  the  infested  leaves,  these  insects  are  difficult  to  reach 
with  insecticides.  In  garden  patches  the  leaves  attacked 
may  be  pulled  off  and  dropped  into  a  vessel  holding 
water,  with  a  film  of  kerosene  on  top.  Spraying  with 
kerosene  emulsion  quite  early  in  the  season,  before  the 
foliage  has  become  conspicuously  curled,  would  probably 
destroy  a  majority  of  the  aphides  then  present  upon  the 
leaves. 

The   Four=lined   Leaf    Bug 

Pmcilocapsus  Imeatus 

This  insect  is  a  widely  distributed  pest  which  for  a 
number  of  years  has  done  great  damage  to  currants, 
gooseberries  and  other  plants.  Its  life  history  has  re- 
cently been  worked 
out  by  Mr.  M.  V. 
Slingerland  of  Cor- 
nell University ;  to 
his  excellent  dis- 
cussion of  the  S23e- 
cies  I  am  indebted 
for  the  figures  and 
information  fcliat 
follow:  In  the 
Northern  States 
the  four-lined  leaf 
bug  generally  first 
FIG.  77.   FOUR-LINED  BUG.   Natural  size  rep-  appears  ^^aboutthc 

resented  ill  small  figure  at  the  right.  middle   of    MaV   OU 

the  newest,  tenderest  terminal  leaves.  The  insects  are 
then  so  small  and  active  in  hiding  themselves  that  they  are 
not  apt  to  attract  attention.  Their  work,  however,  soon 
becomes  apparent.  Minute  semi-transparent  darkish 
spots  appear  on  the  terminal  leaves.  These  spots  are 
scarcely  larger  than  a  common  pin's  head,  and  are  round 


THE   FOUE   LIiq"ED   LEAF   BUG 


153 


or  slightly  angular  in  shape,  depending  upon  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minute  veinlets  of  the  leaf  which  bound 
them.  The  insect  has  inserted  its  beak  into  the  leaf 
and  sucked  out  nearly  all  of  the  opaque  green  pulp  or 
imrenchyma  of  the  interior  within  a  small  area  bounded 
by  the  little  veinlets."  These  spots  later  turn  brown 
and  die ;  and  eventually,  as  the  insects  increase  in  size 
and  destructive  power,  the  leaves  become  withered  and 
dead,  as  represented  in  Plate  X,  h.  '^When  all  the 
tenderest  leaves  have  succumbed, 
the  insect  continues  its  attack  on 
the  older  leaves  lower  down.  Dur- 
ing its  lifetime  a  single  insect  will 
destroy  at  least  two  or  three  cur- 
rant or  gooseberry  leaves.  This 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  injury 
wrought  often  seems  much  out  of 
proportion  to  the  number  of  insects 
at  work. 

*^When  the  insects  are  very 
numerous,  the  growth  of  the  shoots 
is  often  checked,  they  droop,  wither 
and  die.  Some  have  thought  that 
this  blasting  of  the  growth  was 
caused  by  a  poisonous  saliva  which 
the  insect  injected  into  the  wound  fig.  78.   section  of  cur- 

T        ,         .,        1         1  TT  'i.     •  RANT  STEM  SHOWING 

made  by  its  beak.     However,  it  is       ^^^^  ^^  position. 

more    probable    that   the    shoot  dies    e,  egg,  greatly  enlarged. 

or  its  growth  is  checked  on  account  of  the  death  of  its 
breathing  organs — the  leaves.  On  the  currant,  goose- 
berry, and  many  other  plants  the  insect  confines  its 
attacks  to  the  leaves,  but  on  some  ornamental  plants, 
as  the  dahlia  and  rose,  the  most  frequent  point  of  attack 
seems  to  be  the  buds." 

Mr.  Slingerland  has,  for  the  first  time,  traced  the 
annual  cycle  of  this  pest.     He  finds  that  *nhe  nymphs 


154  INSECTS  AKD  INSECTICIDES 

appear  in  the  latter  part  of  May  upon  shrubby  plants, 
where  they  continue  to  feed  upon  the  tender  leaves  for 
two  or  three  weeks,  undergoing  five  molts.  The  adults 
appear  early  in  June  and  often  spread  to  different  sur- 
rounding succulent  plants.  Egg  laying  begins  in  the 
latter  part  of  June,  the  eggs  being  laid  in  slits  cut  in 
the  stems  of  shrubs  near  the  tips  of  the  new  growth. 
The  adults  disappear  in  July  and  the  insect  hibernates 
in  the  egg.  Only  one  brood  occurs  each  year  in  New 
York." 

The  eggs  are  deposited  in  the  stems,  several  being 
placed  side  by  side  in  a  longitudinal  row  (Fig.  78).  The 
egg  clusters  as  they  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  young 
shoots  are  represented  in  Plate  X,  a. 

The  four-lined  leaf  bug  shows  an  extraordinary 
range  of  food  plants,  fifty-four  species  being  listed  as 
attacked  by  it.  ^'  Botanically  considered,  these  lists  are 
of  interest,  as  they  show  an  exceedingly  wide  range  of 
food  plants  for  a  single  species  of  insect.  Rarely  do  we 
find  an  insect  attacking  indiscriminately  so  many  differ- 
ent plants  with  such  widely  different  characteristics. 
The  fifty-four  species  of  plants  represent  forty-nine  gen- 
era in  thirty-one  different  families  of  the  flowering 
plants.  The  gymnosperms,  like  the  pine,  etc.,  are  not 
represented,  and  but  one  genus  {Hemerocallis)  of  the 
monocotyledons.  Fourteen  of  the  plants  are  useful  for 
food  or  medicine ;  twenty-nine  are  ornamental ;  while 
but  eleven  are  wild  species.  Thus  the  beneficial  results 
from  the  attack,  rarely  severe,  of  the  insect  upon  the 
weeds,  so  termed,  is  slight  compared  with  its  frequently 
very  injurious  attacks  upon  the  cultivated  plants." 

Remedies. — Mr.  Slingerland  has  shown  that  tlie 
nymphs  may  be  killed  in  May  by  spraying  with  kerosene 
emulsion  diluted  with  five  parts  of  water.  The  insects 
may  also  be  destroyed  by  jarring  them  into  a  pan  con- 
taining water  and  a  little  kerosene.     This  can  be  done 


1 


\;:r 


PLATE  X.     INJURIES  OF  FOUR-LINED  LEAF  BUG. 


156 


INSECTS   AiiTD   INSECTICIDES 


at  any  time  of  day.  The  development  of  the  pests  may 
be  effectually  prevented  by  i^runing  and  burning,  some- 
time between  August  and  the  following  May,  the  tips  of 
the  branches  in  which  the  eggs  have  been  laid. 

The  Currant  Spanworm 

Eufitcliia  riheai'ia 

This  insect  is  well  illustrated  in  its  different  stages 
in  Fig.  78  a.     The  mischief  is  done  by  the  looping  cater- 


FIG.  78a,     CUKRANT  SPANWORM. 


pillar  that  hatches  from  eggs  laid  on  the  twigs  by  the 
slender-bodied,  broad-winged  moths.  There  is  only  one 
brood  each  season. 


THE    GOOSEBERRY    FRUIT   WORM  157 

As  a  rule  this  insect  is  not  nearly  so  common  as  the 
imported  currant  worm,  but  it  has  occasionally  been 
known  to  become  seriously  destructive.  The  worms  are 
easily  destroyed  by  white  hellebore  applied  in  the  same 
wtiy  as  for  the  imported  species. 

INJURING  THE  FRUIT 

The  Qooseberry=fruit  Worm 

Dahruma  convolutella 

The  fruit  of  the  gooseberry,  and  occasionally  of  the 
currant  also,  is  often  attacked  by  a  small  worm  that  eats 
out  the  substance,  leaving  only  the  skin.  This  is  the  pro- 
geny of  an  Qgg  laid  on  the  fruit  when  it  was  quite  small 
by  a  spotted,  pale-gray  moth.  Soon  after  hatching  from 
this  Qgg  the  larva  bores  into  the  berry,  and  feeds  upon 
the  pulp.  After  it  has  eaten  out  one  berry  it  fastens  an- 
otlier  to  it  by  silken  threads,  and  devours  its  contents, 
continuing  the  process  until  by  the  time  it  is  fully  grow  n 
it  has  formed  a  cluster  of  six  or  eight  injured  berries. 
At  this  time  it  is  a  pale-green  caterpillar,  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  with  a  small,  brown,  horny-looking 
liead.  Shortly  before  the  fruit  ripens  it  lets  itself  to  the 
ground  by  a  silken  thread,  and  concealed  among  the 
fallen  leaves  and  rubbish,  spins  a  thin,  silken  cocoon 
within  which  it  changes  to  a  brown  chrysalis.  It  re- 
mains in  this  condition  until  the  following  spring,  when 
it  comes  forth  as  a  moth  ;  consequently  there  is  only  one 
brood  of  the  larvae  each  year. 

Remedies. — The  fruit  injured  by  these  caterpillars 
is  so  conspicuous  that  hand  picking  is  a  practical  remedy. 
This  must  be  done  rapidly  as  the  larvae  wriggle  out  of 
the  cases  and  drop  to  the  ground  quickly  when  disturbed. 
If  chickens  are  allowed  to  run  over  the  ground  after  the 
fruit  is  gathered  they  will  scratch  up  and  devour  many 
of  the  pupae.     So  also   will   many  be   destroyed  if  the 


158  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

fallen  leaves  and  rubbish  are  raked  together  and  burned 
in  autumn. 

Other  Currant  and  Gooseberry  Insects 

There  are  a  number  of  other  insects  that  occasion- 
ally attack  these  fruits.  The  stems  are  sometimes  in- 
fested by  the  currant-bark  louse  {Lecanium  rihis)  and  the 
American  currant  borer  {Psenocerus  supernotatus) ;  the 
leaves  are  attacked  by  various  caterpillars,  and  the  fruit 
is  liable  to  injury  from  numerous  insects,  especially  the 
currant-fruit  worm  {Eiqnthecia  iutemqjtofasoiata),  the 
currant  fly  {Epochra  canadetisis)  and  the  gooseberry 
midge  {Cecidomyia  grossularice).  But  these  species  are 
rarely  sufficiently  numerous  to  require  special  remedial . 
treatment. 

Summary  of  Treatment. — About  the  only  regu- 
lar treatment  currants  and  gooseberries  require  is  that  of 
spraying  or  dusting  with  hellebore,  soon  after  the  leaves 
expand,  to  destroy  the  imported  currant  worm.  Stems 
which  at  that  time  show  by  tlieir  drooping  foliage  and 
weak  appearance  that  they  are  probably  infested  by 
borers,  should  be  cut  and  burned. 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    THE   RASPBERRY 
AND  BLACKBERRY 


INJURING  THE   ROOTS 

The   Raspberry-root   Borer 

Bembecia   marginata 

The  stems  of  raspberries  and  blackberries  are  some- 
times injured  by  a  whitish  caterpillar  with  sixteen  legs, 
that  bores  the  root  and  base  of  the  stem.  This  is  tlie 
raspberry-root  borer,  and  the  caterpillar  hatches  from  an 
Qgg  deposited  by  a  clear-winged  moth  upon  the  cane,  a 
few  inches  above  the  soil  surface.  The  larya,  after 
hatching,  eats  into  the  center  of  the  stalk,  where  it  de- 
vours the  pith,  working  downward  toward  the  root.  It 
spends  the  winter  in  the  root,  feeding  upon  its  substance, 
and  in  spring  works  upward  again,  generally  in  an- 
other cane  than  the  one  in  wliich  it  descended.  A  few 
inches  above  the  ground  it  gnaws  almost  through  the 
stem  wall,  leaving  the  thin  outer  membrane  intact.  It 
then  pupates  inside  the  cane,  near  the  partial  opening. 
A  short  time  later  the  pupa  wriggles  through  the  hole, 
bursting  the  outer  membrane,  and  stops  when  about 
halfway  out.  Then  the  skin  splits  open  and  the  moth 
comes  forth.  Canes  attacked  by  these  borers  often 
wither  and  die,  and  the  injury  is  sometimes  attributed 
to  '*  winterkilling." 

Remedies. — No  other  remedy  than  that  of  cutting 
out  the  larvae,  or  pulling  up  and  burning  the  infested 

159 


160  INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 

canes,  lias  yet  been  discovered.  Fortunately  tliis  insect 
is  rarely  sufficiently  numerous  to  do  serious  injury.  It 
occurs  in  wild  as  well  as  cultivated  sorts. 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Raspberry  Slug 

Monophad7ius  rubi 

The  raspberry  slug  or  raspberry  sawfly  is  a  four- 
winged  black  fly  with  a  reddish  abdomen,  which  deposits 
its  eggs  during  spring  in  the  raspberry  leaf.  The  eggs 
soon  hatch  into  small  whitish  worms  that  feed  upon  the 
soft  tissues  of  the  tender  foliage.  In  a  few  weeks  they 
become  full-grown.  They  are  then  about  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  long,  of  a  dark  green  color,  and  have  the  body 
thickly  covered  with  spinose  tubercles.  The  slugs  now 
descend  to  the  ground  and  construct  rather  firm  cocoons 
slightly  beneath  the  soil  surface.  They  remain  in  these 
cocoons  until  the  following  spring,  when  they  come  forth 
as  the  adult  flies. 

Remedies. — These  insects  can  easily  be  destroyed 
by  dusting  or  spraying  the  infested  bushes  with  pow- 
dered hellebore.  In  spraying,  use  from  one-half  to  one 
pound  of  hellebore  to  fifty  gallons  of  water. 

INJURING  THE  CANES 

The  Raspberry=cane  Borer 

Oherea  himaculata 

The  adult  of  this  insect  is  a  slender-bodied,  black 
beetle,  with  a  yellow  collar  just  behind  the  head.  It  ap- 
pears early  in  summer,  usually  during  June  in  the  North- 
ern States,  and  deposits  eggs  in  the  green  canes  of  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries.  The  process  of  oviposition  is 
peculiar  ;  the  beetle  makes  two  transverse  rows  of  punc- 
tures about  half  an  inch  apart  in  the  cane,  towards  the 


THE  S^^OWY  TREE   CRICKET  161 

tip,  and  midway  between  these  she  deposits  the  egg. 
The  rows  of  punctures  make  up  a  kind  of  girdling  which 
causes  the  tip  of  the  cane  to  wither.  A  short  time  after 
the  egg  is  deposited  it  hatches  into  a  small  cylindrical 
larva  that  boi'es  downwards  through  the  pith.  By 
autumn  they  have  frequently  reached  the  bottom  of  the 
cane,  where  they  change  to  pupae,  and  the  following  June 
emerge  again  as  beetles. 

Remedies. — Soon  after  the  canes  are  punctured  by 
the  beetle  they  wilt ;  consequently,  if  they  are  examined 
about  midsummer,  affected  canes  can  easily  be  distin- 
guished, and  they  should  then  be  cut  off  below  the  lower 
ring  of  punctures  and  burned.  If  the  injury  is  noticed 
later,  the  whole  cane  should  be  pulled  up  and  destroyed 
to  be  sure  to  get  the  larva. 


The  Snowy  Tree  Cricket 

0eca7itlius  niveus 

Serious  damage  is  frequently  done  in  raspberry  plan- 
tations by  a  small  white  tree  cricket,  which  deposits  its 
eggs  in  longitudinal  rows  in  the  green  canes.  One  of 
these  rows  as  it  appears  when  the  insect  has  completed 
its  work  is  represented  at  Fig.  79,  a,  and  the  cane  split 
open  to  show  how  the  eggs  are  inserted  is  shown  at  b  of 
the  same  figure.  At  c  may  be  seen  one  of  the  elongated, 
slightly  cuiTcd,  yellow  eggs,  considerably  magnified, 
with  an  opaque,  granulated  cap  at  the  upper  end ;  d  is  a 
more  highly  magnified  view  of  this  cap.  The  eggs  batch 
early  in  summer  into  young  crickets  bearing  a  general 
resemblance  to  the  adults,  though  without  wings.  They 
feed  upon  plant  lice  and  other  insects  during  their 
entire  existence,  being  consequently  in  this  way  friends 
rather  than  foes  of  the  fruit  groAver.  By  the  latter  part 
of  summer  they  become  fully  grown.  They  are  then  of 
11 


162 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


a  pale,  whitish-green  color,  about  four-fifths  of  an  inch 
long,  and  nearly  of  the  form  represented  at  Fig.  80, 
which  is  a  closely  related  species.  The 
female  cricket  deposits  her  eggs  in 
the  tender,  growing  canes  of  raspber- 


FIG.  80.     TREE  CRICKET. 

Magnified. 

ries,  blackberries  and  grapes,  and  the 

twigs  of  maple,  willow,  catalpa,  and 

several  other  species  of  trees.     The 

injury   thus    done   often   causes    the 

^^^KEESKET.^afSg  ^'^SP^®^'^^®^  ^^  ^^^  beyond  the  punc- 

sp/ifSp?!.'  to   s'lfow  tures,  or  else  the  damaged  canes  are 

r/fl^^TagmSfe mfg^  ^I'^^en  off  during  the  winter. 

"ified.  Remedies. — Trimming  out  and 

burning  during  fall  or  winter  the  canes  containing  the 

eggs  is  about  the  only  practicable  remedy  known. 


THE   RED  NECKED   AGRILUS 


163 


The  Red=necked  Agrilus 

Agrilus  ricficollis 

One  m;iy  often  find  near  the  base  of  the  canes  of 
raspberries  and  blackberries  a  peculiar  gall  formation 
resembling  Fig.  81,  a.  If  such  a  gall  is  cut  open  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  form  is  due  to 
the  excessive  growth  of  the  bark. 
This  injury  is  caused  by  a  slender 
whitish  worm  that-  hatches  from 
an  Qgg  laid  in  summer  by  a  small 
elongate  beetle  (c)  in  the  axil  of  a 
leafstalk  usually  not  far  from  the 
soil.  The  young  larva  burrows 
through  the  inner  bark,  some- 
times penetrating  to  tlie  pith,  and 
frequently  girdling  the  cane.  Its 
presence  causes  the  abnormal 
growth  manifested  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  gall.     In  autumn  the 


a 

FIG.  81.    RED-NECKED  AGRILUS.    rt,  gall ;  c,  beetle,  magnified. 

larva  enters  the  central  pith,  burrowing  up  or  down  in 
it  some  distance.  The  following  spring  it  pupates  and 
early  in  summer  emerges  as  an  adult  beetle,  which  is 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  long,  ''^somewhat  tapering 
toward  the  end  of  the  body,  bronze  brown  in  general 
color,  but  with  a  coppery-red  or  brassy  neck  or  thorax, 


164  INSECTS   AN"D   INSECTICIDES 

which  makes  it  easily  recognized  and  gives  the  name  to 
the  species.  It  is  found  during  bright  sunshiny  days 
in  late  May,  all  of  June  and  half  of  July,  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves,  eating  little  round  holes,  but  not 
doing  any  perceptible  injury  in  this  stage.  The  beetle 
is  quite  active,  and  flies  readily,  or  if  surprised,  it  will 
fold  its  legs  and  drop  to  the  ground,  remaining  quiet 
until  the  danger  is  over." 

Remedies. — Upon  this  point  Professor  J.  B.  Smith 
writes  :  ''The  mode  of  checking  and  avoiding  future 
injury  by  this  species  is  obvious,  and  requires  only  a 
little  additional  work  when  trimming.  As  early  in  the 
spring  as  may  be,  and  certainly  by  the  middle  of  April, 
the  canes  should  all  be  carefully  examined  and  cut 
away  below  the  galls.  If  these  are  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  the  entire  cane  must  be  saciificed. 
It  might  possibly  bear  some  fruit ;  but  it  would  certainly 
mature  a  beetle  which  would  destroy  a  dozen  other  canes, 
and  this  would  be  poor  economy.  As  the  plants  are  all 
pruned  each  spring  in  any  case,  it  means  simply  a  little 
more  care  and  judgment  exercised  in  the  work  at  a 
somewhat  greater  expense  of  time.  After  the  cutting, 
all  the  twigs  and  other  rubbish  should  be  raked  out, 
and  at  once  burned.  If  the  cut  canes  are  left  in  the 
field,  the  beetles  will  mature  as  well  as  if  no  cutting  had 
been  done,  and  nothing  is  gained.  Every  gall  should  be 
cut  out  and  destroyed  before  the  beginning  of  May. 
This  will  prevent  maturing  of  the  beetles,  and  the  field 
will  be  exempt  from  further  injury  unless  specimens 
come  on  from  other  sources.  This  fact  makes  it  impor- 
tant that  growers  should  co-operate  in  the  work,  and 
that,  as  already  suggested,  some  means  should  be  pro- 
vided to  compel  all  engaged  in  blackberry  culture  to 
prevent  their  land  from  becoming  a  nuisance  to  their 
neighbors." 


THE   PITHY   BLACKBERRY    GALL 


165 


The  Pithy  Blackberry  Qall 

Diastrophus  nehulosus 
The  peculiar  large  galls  represented  in  Fig.  82,  a, 
are  sometimes   found  on   blackberry  canes.     These  are 
caused  by  a  small  fly  which  deposits  eggs  in  the  cane. 


FIG,  82. 


PITHY  GALL,    h,  cut  open;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa;  c,  d  magnified. 

The  eggs  hatch  into  small  grubs  that  cause  the  mal- 
formed growth  ;  they  feed  upon  the  tissues,  each  making 
a  little  cell  in  which  they  finally  pupate,  to  emerge  later 
as  adult  flies.     The  holes  through  which  they  come  are 


166  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

seen  at  a;  the  larva — natural  size  and  magnified — at  c, 
and  the  pupa  magnified  at  d.  Certain  parasites  prey 
upon  these  insects,  wliich  are  seldom  sufficiertly  abun- 
dant to  do  noticeable  injury.  Cutting  and  burning  the 
galls  is  an  easy  remedy  when  necessary. 

Other    Raspberry  and    Blackberry 
Insects 

Raspberries  and  blackberries  are  subject  to  attack 
by  various  insects  besides  those  discussed  in  the  fore- 
going pages.  Certain  galls  are  sometimes  found  upon 
the  roots,  due  usually  to  the  raspberry-root  gallfly 
(Rhodites  radiciim).  The  foliage  is  sometimes  eaten  by 
various  caterpillars  or  beetles,  and  the  fruit  is  occasion- 
ally infested  by  the  flea-like  negro  bug,  or  the  raspberry 
span  worm  {Synchlora  ruhiiwraria).  But  these  various 
insects  as  a  rule  only  do  an  incidental  injury,  and  are 
rarely  sufficiently  numerous  to  require  special  remedial 
treatment. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  GRAPE 


INJURING  THE    ROOT 

The  Qrape=root  Borer 

Scia])teron  ijolistiformis 

The  roots  of  grapes  are  sometimes  found  to  be 
attacked  by  a  whitish,  cylindrical  caterpillar  with  sixteen 
legs,  which  bears  a  strong  general  resemblance  to  the 
peach-tree  borer.  This  is  the  insect  named  above. 
"When  full-grown,"  according  to  Dr.  Riley,  'Hhe  larva 
measures  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  three-quarters,  and 
it  then  forms  a  pod-like  cocoon  of  a  gummy  sort  of  silk, 
covered  with  little  bits  of  wood  bark  and  dirt.  Within 
this  cocoon  it  becomes  a  chrysalis,  which  in  due  time,  by 
aid  of  rows  of  minute  teeth  with  which  it  is  furnished, 
works  its  way  out  of  the  cocoon  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground  and  gives  forth  the  moth.  As  with  the  peach 
borer,  this  insect  requires  a  year  to  develop,  and  is  found 
in  its  different  states  of  larva,  chrysalis  and  moth, 
throughout  the  summer  months,  and  it  doubtless  also 
passes  the  winter  as  a  larva."  The  moth  is  a  wasp-like 
creature,  black,  with  bright  yellow  bands  across  the 
abdomen. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  rarely  seriously  injuri- 
ous. When  a  vine  shows  by  its  weak  or  droo^^ing  ap- 
pearance that  it  is  suffering  from  an  injury  at  the  root, 
the  earth  should  be  dug  away  and  the  borers  searched 
for,  as  is  done  with  the  peach  borer.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  mounding  about  the  base  of  the  vine  with 
earth  would  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs. 

167 


1G8 


INSECTS  AKD  IJSSECTICIDES 


The  Qrape  Phylloxera 

Phylloxera  vastatrix 

The  grape  phylloxera  is  the  worst  insect  enemy  of 
the  vineyarSist.  Its  ravages  have  ruined  thousands  of 
acres  of  grapes  in  France  and  other  European  countries, 
and  much  damage  has  been  done  by  it  in  America. 
There  are  two  forms  of  it,  one  inhabiting  the  roots  (rep- 
resented in  its  various  stages  in  Fig.  85),  and  one  in- 


FIG.  83.  PHYLLOXERA  GALLS  ON  GRAPE  LEAF. 

habiting  the  leaves  (Fig.  84),  upon  which  it  forms  mi- 
nute galls  (Fig.  83). 

Entomologists  and  horticulturists  are  indebted  to 
Dr.  C.  V.  Riley  for  the  elucidation  of  the  life  history  of 
this  curious  insect,  which,  in  his  Seventh  Report  as 
State  Entomologist  of  Missouri,  he  has  summarized  as 
follows:  *'It  hibernates  mostly  as  a  young  larva  tor- 
pidly attached  to  the  roots,  and  so  deepened  in  color  as 
generally  to  be  of  a  dull  brassy-brown,  and,  therefoi'e, 
with  difficulty  perceived,  as  the  roots  are  often  of  the 


THE   GRAPE   PHYLLOXERA 


169 


same  color.  With  the  renewal  of  vine  growth  in  the 
spring,  this  larva  molts,  rapidly  increases  in  size,  and 
soon  commences  laying  eggs.  These  eggs  in  dne  time 
give  birth  to  young,  which  soon  become  virginal,  egg- 
lacing  mothers,  like  the  first ;  and  like  them,  always 
remain  wingless.  Five  or  six  generations  of  these  par- 
thenogenetic,  egg-bearing,  apterous  mothers  follow  each 
other ;  when — about  the  middle  of  July,  in  this  latitude 
— some    of    the    individuals    begin  to    acquire    wings. 


FIG.  84.  GKAPE  PHYLLOXERA,  LEAF  FORM,  a,  b,  iiewly  hatched 
nymphs,  dorsal  and  ventral  view;  c,  egg;  d,  section  of  gall;  e, 
swelling  of  tendril ;  /,  r/,  h,  mother  of  gall  louse,  lateral,  dorsal  and 
ventral  views;  i,  her  antenna;  j,  two-jointed  tarsus.  Natural  sizes 
Indicated  by  small  dots  or  figures. 

These  are  all  females,  and,  like  the  wingless  mothers, 
they  are  parthenogenetic.  Having  issued  from  the 
ground,  while  in  the  pupal  state,  they  rise  m  the  air 
and  spread  to  new  vineyards,  where  they  deliver  them- 
selves of  their  issue  in  the  form  of  eggs  or  egg-like  bodies 
— usually  two  or  three  in  number,  and  not  exceeding 
eight — and  then  perish.  These  eggs  are  of  two  sizes, 
the  larger  about  0.02  of  an  inch  long,  and  the  smaller 
about  three-fifths  of  that  length.     In  the  course  of  a 


170 


INSECTS    AKD   INSECTICIDES 


fortnight  they  produce  the  sexual  individuals,  the  larger 
ones  giving  birth  to  females,  the  smaller  to  males. 
These  sexual  individuals  are  born  for  no  other  purpose 
than  the  reproduction  of  their  kin^,  and  are  without 
means  of  flight,  or  of  taking  food,  or  excreting. 

'^They  are  quite  active  and  couple  readily,  one  male 
being  capable,  no  doubt,  of  serving  several  females; 
the  abdomen  of  the  female,  after  impregnation,  enlarges 


FIG.  85.  GRAPE  PHYLLOXERA,  ROOT  FORM,  a,  infested  loot  lets ;  6,  hi- 
bernating larva;  c,  d,  antenna  and  leg  of  same;  e,f,  cj,  more  mature 
form;  Ti,  granulations  of  skin;  i,  tubercle;  j,  transverse  folds  at 
border  of  joints  ;  k,  simple  eyes. 

somewhat,  and  she  is  soon  delivered  of  a  solitary  Qgg, 
which  differs  from  the  egg  of  the  parthenogenetic 
mother  only  in  becoming  somewhat  darker.  This  im- 
pregnated Qgg  gives  birth  to  a  young  louse  which  be- 
comes a  virginal,  egg-bearing,  wingless  mother,  and  thus 
recommences  the  cycle  of  the  species  evolution.  But 
one  of  the  most  important  discoveries  of  Bolbiana  is 
that,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  many  of  the 
wingless,  hypogean  mothers  perform  the  very  same  func- 
tion as  the  wniged  ones;  i,  e.,  they  lay  a  few  eggs  which 


THE    GRAPE    PHYLLOXERA  171 

are  of  two  sizes  and  which  produce  males  and  females, 
organized  and  constructed  precisely  as  those  born  of  the 
winged  females,  and  like  them  producing  the  solitary 
impregnated  egg.  Thus,  the  interesting  fact  is  estab- 
lished that  even  the  winged  form  is  by  no  means  essen- 
tial to  the  perpetuation  of  the  species  ;  but  that,  if  all 
such  winged  individuals  were  destroyed  as  fast  as  they 
issue  from  the  ground,  the  species  could  go  on  multi- 
plying in  a  vineyard  from  year  to  year.  We  have,  there- 
fore, the  spectacle  of  an  underground  insect  possessing 
the  power  of  continued  existence,  even  where  confined 
to  its  subterranean  retreats.  It  spreads  in  the  wingless 
state  from  vine  to  vine  and  from  vineyard  to  vineyard, 
when  these  are  adjacent,  either  through  passages  in  the 
ground  itself,  or  over  the  surface.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  able,  in  the  winged  condition,  to  migrate  to  more 
distant  points.  The  winged  females,  as  before  stated, 
begin  to  appear  in  July,  and  continue  to  issue  from  the 
ground  until  vine  growth  ceases  in  the  fall.  Yet  they 
are  much  more  abundant  in  August  than  during  any 
other  month,  and  on  certain  days  may  be  said  to  literally 
swarm.  Every  piece  of  a  root  a  few  inches  long,  and 
having  rootlets,  taken  from  an  infested  vine  at  this  sea- 
son, will  present  a  goodly  proportion  of  pupae ;  and  an 
ordinary  quart  preserve  jar,  filled  with  such  roots  and 
tightly  closed,  will  furnish  daily,  for  two  or  three  weeks, 
a  dozen  or  more  of  the  winged  females,  which  gather  on 
the  sides  of  the  jar  toward  the  light.  We  may  get  some 
idea,  from  this  fact,  of  the  immense  numbers  that  dis- 
appear through  the  air  to  new  fields,  from  a  single  acre 
of  infested  vines,  in  the  course  of  the  late  summer  and 
fall  months.  If  to  the  above  account  we  add  that  occa- 
sionally individuals  abandon  their  normal  underground 
habit,  and  form  galls  upon  the  leaves  of  certain  varieties 
of  grapevine,  we  have,  m  a  general  way,  the  whole 
natural  history  of  the  speciea." 


172  INSECTS   AND   IJ^SECTICIDES 

Remedies. — In  America  comparatively  little  has 
been  done  in  a  practical  way  in  fighting  this  insect,  be- 
cause its  injuries  here  are  usually  not  serious.  But  in 
Europe  a  great  deal  has  been  accomplished  in  preventing 
its  injuries.  According  to  Dr.  Riley  the  means  em- 
ployed there  *  ^consist  in  (1)  methods  which  avoid  the 
necessity  of  direct  treatment,  comprising  the  use  of 
American  stocks  and  planting  in  sandy  soils ;  (2)  the 
employment  of  insecticides  (bisulphide  of  carbon,  sul- 
phocarbonate  of  potassium,  and  the  kerosene  emulsion); 
and  (3)  submersion." 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Grapevine  Flea=beetle 

Oraptodera  chalyhea 

This  is  a  small,  steel-blue  beetle  (Fig.  86,  d)  that  is 
often  very  destructive  to  grapevines.  It  hibernates  as 
an  adult.  As  soon  in  spring  as  the  buds  begin  to  swell 
the  beetles  come  forth  and  attack  them.  The  injury  at 
this  time  is  often  great,  because  the  immature  leaf  and 
flower  buds  are  so  easily  destroyed.  The  beetles  continue 
feeding  for  three  or  four  Aveeks,  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  time  depositing  small  orange-yellow  eggs  in  clus- 
ters on  the  undersides  of  the  leaves.  They  then  die, 
and  in  a  few  days  the  eggs  hatch  into  small,  dark-colored 
larvae  that  feed  upon  the  foliage.  As  they  grow  older 
they  gnaw  irregular  holes  in  the  leaves,  giving  them  a 
ragged  and  unsightly  appearance  (Fig.  80,  a).  When 
fully  grown  (three  or  four  wrecks  after  hatching)  they 
are  about  three-tenths  of  an  inch  long,  brown  in  color, 
with  six  legs,  and  four  or  five  black  dots  on  the  back  of 
each  ring  or  segment  of  the  body.  The  head  is  black, 
and  there  are  numerous  hairs  on  the  body.  One  is  shown 
somewhat  magnified  at  l,  Fig.  86.     When  fully  grown 


THE   GRAPEVINE   FLEA    BEETLE 


173 


the  larvae  leave  the  vines,  and,  entering  the  soil,  form 
earthen  cocoons  (c),  within  which  they  change  to  pupae. 
A  few  weeks  later  they  again  transform  and  emerge  as 
perfect  beetles.  These  also  feed  upon  the  foliage  and 
lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood  of  larvae. 


FIG.  86.    GRAPEVINE  FLEA-BEETLE,    a,  leaf  infested  by  larva ;  6,  larva, 
magnified;  c,  cocoon;  d,  beetle,  magnified. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  Paris  green  (three 
ounces  to  fifty  gallons  water)  is  probably  the  best  remedy 
for  this  i:>est.  They  may  also  be  destroyed  by  pyrethrum 
or  insect  powder.  On  cool  mornings  the  beetles  are 
quite  sluggish,  and  may  be  collected  by  jarring  them  on 
sheets. 


174 


lifSECTS   Ai;rD   liq-SECTICIDES 


The  Rose  Chafer 

Macrodactylus  subspinosus 

This  insect  has  been  known  for  nearly  a  century  as 
a  serious  enemy  of  the  horticulturist.  It  is  distributed 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States,  but  ajDpears  to 
be  injurious  only  in  certain  localities  where  areas  of  low, 
sandy  bottom  lands  offer  unusual  opportunities  for  it  to 
multiply.  It  feeds  in  the  beetle  state  upon  a  very  great 
variety  of  trees  and  plants,  often  being  exceedingly  inju- 
rious to  the  flowers  or  foliage  of*  apples,  pears,  plums, 
peaches,  roses,  raspberries,  blackberries,  grapes  and 
other  plants. 

The  adult  rose  chafer,  rose  beetle  or  rose  bug,  is  a 
hard,   brown  insect,   not   quite   half   an  inch   long,   of 

the  form  represented  at  Fig. 
87,  c.  It  makes  its  appear- 
ance early  in  summer,  about 
the  time  grapes  come  into 
blossom,  and  feeds  upon  the 
flowers,  foliage  or  fruit  of 
the  plants  already  men- 
tioned. After  pairing,  the 
[females    deposit    thirty    or 


ROSE    CHAFER,    a,   larva 


b,  pupa;  c,  beetle, 
nified. 


Slightly  mag- 


more  eggs  an  inch  or  so  be- 
neath the  soil  surface,  preferring  for  this  purpose,  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Riley's  observations,  ''low,  open  meadow  land 
or  cultiyated  fields,  particularly  where  the  soil  is  light 
and  sandy."  In  two  or  three  weeks  the  eggs  hatch  into 
grubs  that  feed  upon  the  roots  of  grass,  and  possibly 
other  plants,  and  become  fully  grown  (a)  in  autumn. 
As  winter  approaches  they  go  deeper  into  the  soil,  com- 
ing to  the  surface  again  in  spring,  and  making  for  them- 
selves rude,  earthen  cells  in  which  they  change  to  the 
pupal  state  (l).     Three  or  four  weeks  later  they  again 


THE    ROSE    CHAFER  175 

change,  and  the  perfect  beetle  comes  forth.  Thus  there 
is  but  one  brood  a  year.  The  insect  lives  in  the  beetle 
state  about  a  month. 

Remedies. — There  is,  perhaps,  no  fruit  insect  so 
difficult  to  combat  as  this.  As  yet  no  practicable 
method  of  destroying  it  in  its  breeding  grounds  has 
been  found,  and  the  success  attending  the  various  pre- 
ventive's of  beetle  injury  has  been  by  no  means  universal. 
Spraying  or  dusting  with  pyrethrum  or  insect  powder 
has  been  found  to  stupefy  the  beetles  temporarily,  and 
will  occasionally  prove  useful  in  protecting  fruits.  A 
single  rose  bush  or  grapevine  may  be  covered  with  mos- 
quito netting,  but  of  course  this  is  impractncable  on  a 
large  scale.  In  regions  where  the  beetles  are  not  over- 
whelmingly abundant,  thorough  spraying  of  grapevines 
and  fruit  trees  with  a  wash  made  by  adding  three  or 
four  pecks  of  freshly  slaked  lime  and  a  quart  of  crude 
carbolic  acid  to  fifty  gallons  of  water,  has  been  reported 
by  several  fruit  growers  to  be  successful,  although  on 
the  other  hand,  some  who  have  tried  it  in  a  smaller  way 
say  it  did  little  or  no  good.  A  better  method,  which 
has  been  reported  successful  in  Rhode  Island,  is  to 
spray  the  buds  before  the  blossoms  open — in  the  State 
named  the  spraying  was  done  the  first  week  in  June — 
with  one  pound  Paris  green  to  fifty  gallons  Bordeaux 
mixture.  In  parts  of  New  Jersey,  hand  picking  has 
been  resorted  to  as  the  only  sure  method  of  extermina- 
tion, the  insects  being  collected  in  the  cooler  hours  of 
the  day.  They  may  be  destroyed  also  by  hot  water, 
provided  it  is  hot  enough  when  it  touches  them.  On 
the  whole  the  arsenited  Bordeaux  mixture  seems  the 
most  promising  remedial  measure  for  most  localities 
^^lere  the  beetles  are  not  overwhelmingly  abundant. 


176 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


The  Spotted   Grapevine   Beetle 

Pelidnota  punctata 

This  insect  has  been  known  for  years  to  attack  grape- 
vines, but  it  has  rarely  been  reported  to  do  really  serious 
injury  to  them,  probably  because  it  usually  is  present  in 
such  limited  numbers  that  its  depredations  are  insignifi- 
cant. The  larva  (Fig.  88,  a)  feeds  on  the  decaying  roots  of 
various  trees,  and  resembles  somewhat  the  common  white 
grub  of  meadows — the  larva  of  the  May  beetle.  Its  gen- 
eral color  is  whitish,  with  the  head  chestnut-brown.     It 


FIG.  88.  SPOTTED  GRAPEVINE  BEETLE. 

a,  larva;  h,  pupa;  e,  beetle. 

is  supposed  to  require  three  years  to  complete  its  de- 
velopment. When  full-grown  it  forms  a  sort  of  cocoon, 
within  which  it  changes  to  the  chrysalis  or  pupal  state,  to 
emerge  about  a  fortnight  later  as  an  adult  beetle. 

The  general  color  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  beetle 
is  a  dull  yellowish-brown,  but  the  thorax  is  darker  and 
somewhat  bronzed,  and  the  under  surface  is  of  a  bril- 


GRAPE   SPHIITX   MOTHS 


177 


liant  metallic  greenish-black  hue.  There  are  three  dis- 
tinct black  dots  on  each  of  the  wing  covers,  and  also  one 
on  each  side  of  the  thorax.  The  beetle  usually  feeds 
upon  the  foliage  of  wild  and  cultivated  grapevines,  and 
also  on  the  Virginia  creeper,  but  sometimes  att£*cks  green 
grapes,  biting  holes  through  the  skin  and  so  ruining  the 
fruit. 

Remedies. — The  only  practical  remedy  so  far  pro- 
posed is  that  of  collecting  the  beetles  by  hand  and  de- 
stroying them.  As  they  fly  especially  just  at  dusk,  this 
is  the  best  time  for  accomplishing  the  work. 


Qrape   Sphinx  Moths 

The  grape  forms  the  favorite  food  of  several  species 
of  large  and  handsome  sphinx  moths.     As  there  is  not 


FIG.  89.     THE  ACHEMON    SPHINX. 

space  to  discuss  each  of  these,  we  will  take  the  achemon 
sphinx  {Philampelus  achemon)  as  an  example.  The 
adult  of  this  species  is  one  of  the  most*  beautiful  of  the 
hawk  moths.  It  measures  three  and  a  half  inches  across 
12 


178 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


its  expanded  wings,  and  is  brownish  gray  in  color  witli 
lighter  brown  variegations  and  deeper  brown  spots  ar- 
ranged on  the  front  wings,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The 
posterior  wings  are  pink,  more  reddish  toward  the  mid- 
dle, and  having  a  wide  grayish  border  along  the  hind 
margin,  on  the  front  edge  of  which  is  a  row  of  dark 


FIG.  89a.     LARVA  OF  ACHEMON   SPHINX. 

spots.  These  moths  make  their  appearance  during  June 
and  July,  flying  abont  grapevines  and  various  flowers  at 
dusk,  and  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  undersides  of  the 
leaves  of  grape  and  Virginia  creeper.  Within  a  few  days 
these  eggs  hatch  into  little  larvae  that  feed  upon  the 
foliage,  growing  so  rapidly  that  by  September  they  are 


FIG.  896.       PUPA  OF  ACHEMON    SPHINX. 

nearly  four  inches  long  and  as  thick  <is  a  man's  finger 
(Fig.  89«).  At  this  time  different  individuals  vary 
greatly  in  color,  some  being  straw  yellow  and  others  red- 
dish brown.  There  are  six  cream-colored  spots  along  the 
sides,  and  numerous  little  dots  scattered  over  the  body." 
The  head  and  first  two  body  segments  are  smaller  than 
the  rest,  allowing  the  caterpillar  to  draw  them  partially 
inside  the  next  one  back. 


THE   ABBOT   SPHINX  179 

The  fully  grown  caterpillar  descends  to  the  ground, 
and  entering  the  soil  several  inches  forms  a  smooth  oval 
cell,  within  which  it  changes  to  a  dark,  shining  brown 
pupa  or  chrysalis.  It  remains  in  this  condition  until  the 
following  year,  when  it  emerges  as  a  moth  again. 

The  green  grapevine  sphinx  (Darapsa  myron)  and 
the  pandorus  sphinx  {Pliilampelus  pandorus)  are  closely 
related  to  the  achemon  ^ 

sphinx  and   similar  to  "^  ""^ 

it  in  life  history  and 
habits.  All  three  spe- 
cies are  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  a  small  par- 
asitic liy  that  spins  oval  ^j^  qq  caterpillar  with  cocooxs  of 
cocoons  upon  the  backs     parasite.    Adult  parasite  at  right ;  lat- 

of   the   caterpillars,   as    ^^^  "^^S'-^^^- 
shown  at  Fig.    90,   which  represents  the   larva  of  the 
green  grapevine  sphinx  so  infested.     The  life  history  of 
these  little  creatures  has  already  been  described  in  the 
Introduction  (p.  10). 

Remedies. — Fortunately  these  sphinx  larvae  seldom 
become  sufficiently  numerous  to  do  serious  injury.  They 
are  so  conspicuous  both  on  account  of  their  size  and  the 
defoliated  condition  of  the  branches  upon  which  they 
are  at  work,  that  hand  picking  is  usually  a  sufficiently 
simple  and  practical  remedy. 

The  Abbot  Sphinx 

Thyreus  abhotii 

This  is  a  comparatively  rare  species,  and  has  never 
been  known  to  do  serious  injury  in  vineyards.  The  moth 
(Fig.  91),  a  handsome,  chocolate-brown  insect,  measuring 
two  and  a  half  inches  across  the  expanded  wings,  appears 
in  spring,  and  deposits  eggs  upon  the  grapevines.  The 
larva  soon  hatches,  and  feeds  upon  the  leaves,  becoming 


180 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


fully  grown  during  the  latter  part  of  summer.  It  is  then 
about  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  yellowish  or  reddish- 
brown  in  color,  and  of  the  form  represented  in  the  upper 
illustration  of  Fig.  91.  It  now  descends  to  the  ground, 
where  it  forms  a  loose  cocoon,  within  which  it  changes 


FIG.  91.    ABBOT  SPHINX.    Laiva  and  moth. 

to  the  chrysalis  state,  remaining  in  that  condition  until 
the  following  spring,  when  it  emerges  as  a  moth  again. 

Remedies. — Unless  this  insect  becomes  much  more 
numerous  than  it  has  been  heretofore,  it  can  easily  be 
held  in  check  by  a  little  hand  picking. 

The  Qrapevine=leaf  Hopper 

Typhlocyba  vitis 

This  little  insect  is  frequently  called  the  grape 
thrips,  but  its  more  i:»roper  name  is  the  one  given  above, 
as  it  is  not  a  thrips  at  all,  but  a  true  leaf  hopper.  It  is 
a  beautiful  little  creature,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  yellow  with  bright-red  markings,  and  of  the  form 
represented  at  Plate  IX,  Fig.  5  (p.  13G).  ''They  make 
their  tirst  appearance,"  says  Dr.  Harris,  ''on  the  leaves 


THE  GRAPEVIKE  LEAF  HOPPER  181 

in  June,  "when  they  are  yery  small  and  not  proyided  with 
wings,  being  then  in  the  larval  state.  During  most  of 
the  time  they  remain  perfectly  quiet  with  their  beaks 
thrust  into  the  leaves,  from  which  they  derive  their 
nourishment  by  suction.  If  disturbed,  however,  they 
leap  from  one  leaf  to  another  with  great  agility.  As  they 
increase  in  size  they  have  occasion  frequently  to  change 
their  skins,  and  great  numbers  of  their  emj)ty  cast  skins, 
of  a  white  color,  will  be  found  throughout  the  summer 
adhering  to  the  undersides  of  the  leaves,  and  upon  the 
ground  beneath  the  vines.  When  arrived  at  maturity, 
which  generally  occurs  during  the  month  of  August, 
they  are  still  more  agile  than  before,  making  use  of  their 
delicate  wings  as  well  as  their  legs  in  their  motions  from 
place  to  place ;  and  when  the  leaves  are  agitated  they 
leap  and  fly  from  them  in  swarms,  but  soon  alight  and 
begin  again  their  destructive  operations.  The  infested 
leaves  at  length  become  yellow,  sickly,  and  prematurely 
dry,  and  give  to  the  vine  at  midsummer  the  aspect  it 
naturally  assumes  on  the  approach  of  winter.  In 
autumn  the  leaf  hoppers  desert  the  vines,  and  retire  for 
shelter  during  the  coming  winter  beneath  fallen  leaves, 
and  among  the  decayed  tufts  and  roots  of  grass,  where 
they  remain  till  the  following  spring,  when  they  emerge 
from  their  winter  quarters,  deposit  their  eggs  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  vine,  and  perish." 

Remedies. — If  the  vines  are  dusted  early  in  the 
season,  before  the  leaf  hoppers  have  acquired  wings,  with 
pyrethrum  (insect  powder)  or  tobacco  dust,  by  means  of 
some  apparatus  like  Leggett's  powder  gun,  the  pests  will 
be  destroyed  by  the  million.  This  appears  to  be  the 
most  promising  remedy  for  them.  Some  vineyardists 
catch  them  on  a  sheet  saturated  with  kerosene  or  covered 
with  tar,  the  sheet  being  stretched  on  a  frame  which  is 
carried  along  one  side  of  the  row,  while  somebody  goes 
along  the  other  side  of  the  vines  and  frightens  the  insects 
toward  it. 


182 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


The  Qrapevine=leaf  Roller 

Desmia  maculalis 

This  is  a  slender,  somewhat  flattened,  yellowish- 
green  cateipillar,  measuring  when  full-grown  about 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  that  rolls  the  leaves  of  grape- 
vines, fastening  the  sides  together  by  silken  threads.  It 
hatches  from  an  Qgg  laid  on  the  leaf  by  a  pretty  little 
dark-brown  moth,  expanding  nearly  an  inch,  and  having 
several  conspicuous  white  spots  on  its  wings.     The  larva 


FIG.  92.    GKAPE-LEAF  KOLLEK.     l,larv.i;  2,  head  of  same,  magnified; 
3,  pupa;  4,  5,  moth. 

usually  pupates  within  the  folded  leaf.  There  are  two 
broods  each  season,  the  first  brood  of  larvae  pupating 
about  midsummer,  to  emerge  as  moths  shortly  after- 
wards, and  the  second  pupating  in  autumn  and  hibernat- 
ing as  chrysalids. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  seldom  sufficiently  nu- 
merous to  require  remedial  treatment.  The  larvae  may  be 
crushed  within  their  cases,  or  the  cases  picked  off  and 
burned  late  in  autumn,  before  the  leaves  fall  off,  if  they 
threaten  to  become  seriously  destructive. 


THE   BEAUTIFUL   WOOD   KY3IPH 


183 


The  Beautiful  Wood  Nymph 

Eudryas  grata 

This  is  a  very  handsome  insect,  both  in  its  imma- 
ture and  adult  stages.  The  moth  (Fig.  93,  g)  measures 
nearly  two  inches  across  its  expanded  front  wings, 
which  are  of  a  glossy  creamy-white  color,  beautifully 
marked  with  purple,  brown  and  green.  It  lays  its  eggs 
on  the  underside  of  the  leaves.     The  larvae  soon  hatch 


FIG.  93.    BEAUTIFUL  WOOD  NYMrH.    «,  larva;  e,  A  egg,  magnified; 
</,  moth. 

and  feed  upon  the  foliage,  developing  rapidly,  so  that  by 
the  latter  part  of  summer  they  are  full-grown  {a),  the 
body  being  of  a  pale  bluish  color,  crossed  by  bands  and 
lines  of  orange  and  black.  The  larvae  now  leave  the 
vine  and  seek  some  concealed  situation  in  which  to  pu- 
pate. They  pass  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and 
emerge  the  following  spring  as  moths. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  rarely  injurious,  prob- 
ably because  it  is  kept  in  check  by  certain  parasites.  It 
can  be  destroyed  if  it  should  become  too  numerous  by. 


184  i:^SECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

hand  picking,  or  by  spraying  or  dusting  the   infested 
Tines  with  pyrethrum  or  hellebore. 

INJURING  THE   FRUIT 

The  Qrape=berry  Moth 

Eudemis  hotrana 

Grapes  are  frequently  injured  by  having  their  sub- 
stance eaten  out  by  a  small,  whitish  worm  that  fastens 
three  or  four  berries  together  with  silken  threads,  and 
devours  the  contents  of  each.  This  insect  is  the  larva  or 
caterpillar  of  tlie  grape-berry  moth,  a  species  imported 
many  years  ago  from  Europe,  where  it  has  long  been 
known  as  an  enemy  of  the  vine.  The  adult  is  a  small, 
bluish  moth  that  deposits  its  eggs  late  in  June  or  early  in 


FIG.  94.     GK APE-BERRY  MOTH. 

«,  moth;  6,  larva;  d,  injured  fruit. 

July.  The  very  young  caterpillar  is  found  within  the 
skin  of  the  grape,  devouring  the  contents.  When  it  has 
finished  one  it  gnaws  its  way  out  and  enters  a  neighbor- 
ing berry,  fastening  the  two  together  with  silken  threads 
(Fig.  94,  d).  In  this  way  three  or  four  berries  are  fre- 
quently destroyed  by  a  single  larva,  which,  when  fully 
grown,  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  mch  long,  of  a  dull  green 
color  tinged  with  red,  and  covered  with  a  few  short  hairs. 
It  pupates  on  the  leaf,  first  cutting  out  a  crescent-shaped 
flap  which  it  binds  down   by  means  of  silken  threads. 


OTHER   GRAPE   INSECTS  185 

forming  a  snug,  tight  cocoon.  About  a  fortnight  later, 
in  southern  latitudes,  the  moths  appear,  to  lay  eggs  for  a 
second  brood,  which  hibernates  in  the  pupal  state. 

Remedies. —  The  only  remedies  as  yet  suggested 
are  those  of  gathering  and  burning  the  fallen  leaves  in 
autumn  or  early  winter,  or  picking  and  burning  injured 
fruit,  being  sure  to  get  the  larva  with  it. 

Other  Qrape  Insects 

The  grape  is  subject  to  attack  by  many  insects  be- 
sides those  discussed  in  the  preceding  23ages.  The  roots 
are  sometimes  bored  by  the  gigantic  larva  of  two  species 
of  Prionus  —  the  broad-necked  Prionus  (P.  laticollis) 
and  the  tile-horned  Prionus  (P.  imhricornis) — but  these 
insects  usually  infest  only  grapevines  planted  on  new 
land  and  are  seldom  injurious  in  older  fields.  The 
branches  are  attacked  by  a  variety  of  species,  including 
certain  tree  hoppers,  the  maple-bark  louse,  the  red- 
shouldered  Sinoxylon  {8.  iasilare).  and  certain  gall- 
making  insects.  The  enemies  to  the  foliage  of  the  grape 
are  legion,  and  include  insects  of  varied  habits  and  nat- 
ural orders.  The  fruit  is  sometimes  injured  by  the  larva 
of  a  small  snout  beetle  called  the  grape  curculio  {Crapo7i- 
ius  incBquIis),  and  also  by  a  very  minute  larva  that  occurs 
inside  the  seed,  the  grape-seed  maggot  (Isosoma  vitis). 
But  these  insects  are  seldom  really  injurious. 

Summary  of  Treatment. — The  grape  is  subject 
to  attack  by  so  great  a  variety  of  insect  enemies  that  it  is 
difficult  to  give  any  general  directions  for  the  season's 
treatment.  It  must  largely  be  regulated  according  to 
the  insects  present.  Clean  culture,  however,  is  always 
advisable,  as  it  lessens  the  opportunities  for  many  species 
to  survive  the  winter  successfully. 


:E>JL.Tt'J?    XXX 

Insects   affecting   shade  Trees. 

Ornamental  Plants,  and 

Flowers 


PLATE  XI.     THE  WOOLLY  ALDER  APHIS. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


INJURING  THE    TRUNK 

The  Sixteen = legged  Maple  Borer 

Sesia  acerni 

In  many  portions  of  the  Union,  especially  through- 
out the  Central  States,  maple  trees  are  often  seriously 
injured  by  a  small  whitish  larva  that  burrows  through 
the  sapwood  and  inner  bark.  Unlike  the  ordinary  wood- 
boring  grubs,  this  insect  has  sixteen  legs  and  resembles 
a  small  caterpillar.  It  is  about  half  an  inch  long ;  the 
head  is  yellow  and  the  legs  are  reddish.  The  burrows 
are  filled  with  brownish  castings.  It  hatches  from  eggs 
laid  on  the  bark,  nearly  always  where  the  latter  is 
cracked,  bruised  or  otherwise  injured  ;  the  attack  of  this 
species  often  follows  that  of  the  flat-headed  borer.  The 
egg-laying  parent  is  a  small  handsome  day-flying  moth, 
having  clear  wings  and  the  general  form  represented  in 
Fig.  95,  c ;  the  head  is  reddish,  the  thorax  yellowish, 
and  the  abdomen  bluish  black  more  or  less  marked  with 
yellow  and  having  a  reddish  tuft  at  the  hind  end.  The 
front  wings  are  bluish  black  blotched  with  yellow.  The 
larvae  feed  upon  the  sapwood  and  inner  bark  for  several 
months,  often  girdling  the  tree,  before  they  become  full- 
grown.  They  then  burrow  almost  through  the  outer 
bark,  leaving  a  thin  layer  untouched ;  next  they  form 
slight  oval  silken  cocoons  {b)  within  the  burrows,  and 
inside  of  these  they  change  to  chrysalids.  When  ready 
for  the  final  change,  each  chrysalis  wriggles  forward, 

189 


190 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


ruptures  the  thin  layer  of  bark  and  pushes  itself  about 
halfway  out  of  the  opening ;  then  the  chrysalis  shell  breaks 

open  and  the  moth  emerges, 
leaving  its  empty  chrysalis 
case  behind  it,  as  shown  in  d 
of  the  accompanying  figure. 
The  moths  emerge  early  in 
summer  and  soon  after  de- 
posit their  eggs. 

Remedies.  —  Keeping 
the  bark  smooth  and  free 
from  cracks  or  other  inju- 
ries is  an  important  preven- 
tive of  the  attacks  of  this 
insect.  It  is  also  stated  that 
their  injuries  may  be  pre- 
vented by  applying  to  the 
trunks  early  in  summer  a 
mixture  of  lye  and  soft  soap, 
it  being  more  effective  if  a 

FIG.  95.    Maple  bokkr.    a,  cater-,.,,,      r»     •  •         tit 

piUar ;  6,  cocoon  ;o,  moth  ;r/,  pupa  little    PariS    grCCU    IS    added. 

case.  Spraying  the    trunks   thor- 

oughly with  the  Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green  com- 
bination might  prove  an  effective  preventive. 

INJURING  THE   BRANCHES 

Willow=twig  Aphides 

Melanoxantlius  sp. 

The  various  species  of  willow  are  particularly  sub- 
ject to  the  attacks  of  aphides  or  plant  lice.  No  less 
than  nine  of  these  insects  have  been  described  as  preying 
upon  them.  No  part  of  the  tree,  except  possibly  the 
root,  is  exempt  from  attack,  and  the  bark  and  twigs 
receive  the  exckisive  attention  of  at  least  five  species. 
Some  of   these   often   become   seriously  injurious,   and 


WILLOW    TWIG    APHIDES 


191 


more  frequently,  perhaps,  their  presence  is  extremely 
annoying  where  they  occur  upon  shade  or  ornamental 
trees  in  private  grounds  or  public  parks. 

The  aphides  most  commonly  found  upon  willow 
twigs  belong  to  the  genus  Melanoxanthus.  Three  Amer- 
ican species  of  the  genus  are  known.  The  willow-grove 
aphis  (M.  salicti)  is  probably  the  commonest  in  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States.  It  is  similar  in  a^ipearance 
and  habits  to  the  nearly  related  flocculent  willow-twig 
aphis,  represented  in  Fig.  96.  This  insect  lives  over  in 
the  Qgg  state  on  the  bark  of  willow  twigs.     Early  in 


R  Detmers,  del. 


FIG.  96.    FLOCCULENT  WILLOW  APHIS,     a,  ovipaious  female;   b,  head 
and  antenna;  c,  eggs  on  bark. 

spring  the  eggs  hatch  into  young  plant  lice  which  insert 
their  tiny  beaks  into  the  tender  bark  and  suck  out  the 
sap.  They  grow  rapidly,  and  each  one  soon  becomes 
the  mother  of  several  young  aphides.  The  generation 
from  the  egg  are  all  wingless,  but  those  of  the  second 
generation  probably  develop  into  both  winged  and  wing- 
less forms,  which  are  also  viviparous.  Successive  broods 
continue  to  appear  throughout  the  entire  summer,  all 


192  IKSECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 

being  viviparous,  and  some  having  wings  while  others 
have  none.  By  midsummer  they  have  often  increased  so 
enormously  as  to  cover  all  the  twigs  of  infested  trees, 
making  them  appear  filthy  and  unsightly,  as  well  as 
impairing  their  vitality  by  extracting  the  sap.  A  single 
one  of  the  aphides  hatched  from  the  egg  in  spring  may 
become  the  ancestor  of  many  millions  before  autumn. 
But  in  October  a  true  sexed  generation  develops,  the 
males  being  winged  and  the  females  wingless.  By  the 
union  of  these  two,  the  true  eggs  are  obtained. 

The  wingless  forms,  whether  viviparous  or  ovipa- 
rous, do  not  differ  materially  in  appearance.  The  ovi- 
parous, or  egg-laying,  form  is  about  one-fifth  of  an  inch 
long,  bluish  black  in  color,  with  a  glaucous  bloom.  It 
has  a  distinct  white  longitudinal  line  along  the  middle 
of  the  back,  and  a  row  of  white  spots  along  each  side. 
The  cornicles,  or  honey  tubes,  are  bright  orange-yellow. 
The  male  is  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  wing  ex- 
panse of  one-third  of  an  inch.  The  body  is  bluish  black, 
with  the  wings  transparent  and  their  veins  yellowish 
brown. 

The  oyiparous  females  congregate  for  the  purpose 
of  depositing  their  eggs  in  one  or  a  few  places  on  the 
tree,  where  they  cover  the  bark  with  them.  The  egg  is 
about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  long  and  oval  in  form ; 
when  first  laid  it  is  covered  with  a  liquid  which  on  ex- 
l^osure  to  the  air  dries  into  a  thin,  grayish,  irregular 
covering,  suggestive  of  felt. 

Remedies. — Spray  with  kerosene  emulsion;  cut 
off  and  burn  the  limbs  on  which  the  eggs  are  laid. 


THE   WHITE   PINE   APHIS  193 

The  Toothed  Willow  Aphis 

Lachnus  dentatus 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  aphides  affecting  the  wil- 
low, being  in  fact  one  of  the  largest  known  species  of 
this  family.  The  wingless  forms  are  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  long.  Its  life  history  is  much  like  that  of  the 
spotted  willow  aphis  described  above,  except  that  it  pre- 
fers the  trunk  and  larger  limbs  to  the  twigs.  The  sexed 
individuals  appear  in  autumn,  and  the  eggs  are  probably 
laid  upon  the  bark.  The  species  is  characterized  by  a 
large  tooth-like  tubercle  on  the  middle  of  the  back  of 
the  abdomen. 

Remedies. — A  strong  kerosene  emulsion  sprayed 
ujion  the  bark  will  destroy  these  creatures. 

The  White-pine  Aphis 

Laclinvs  s/roI)i 

This  insect  is  a  widely  distributed  species,  and  on 
account  of  its  egg-laying  habits  it  is  liable  to  be  intro- 
duced everywhere  with  pine  trees  from  nurseries.  It 
frequently  becomes  so  numerous  as  to  do  serious  injury 
to  white  pines  in  ornamental  grounds. 

Like  most  plant  lice,  this  species  reproduces  vivi- 
2^arously,  or  by  giving  birth  to  living  young,  during  the 
summer,  but  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the  sexual 
individuals  are  produced.  During  October  these  are 
usually  the  only  forms  present,  the  oviparous  females 
being  congregated  in  great  numbers  upon  the  bark  of 
the  smaller  branches,  with  their  heads  nearly  always 
directed  towards  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  When  disturbed 
they  move  about  rapidly,  usually  attempting  to  conceal 
themselves  on  the  other  side  of  the  branch.  At  such 
times  they  also  have  a  curious  habit  of  waving  their 
13 


194 


INSECTS   AXD   INSECTICIDES 


long  hind  legs  in  the  air,  probabl}'  for  the  purpose  of 
frightening  away  predaceous  or  parasitic  enemies. 

The  oviparous  female  is  represented,  much  magni- 
fied, at  Fig.  97.  It  is  nearly  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long, 
shining  black  more  or  less  tinged  with  brown,  and  orna- 
mented with  spots  and  stripes 
of  Avhite.  The  wingless  yivipa- 
rous  females  do  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  this  form.  The 
winged  male  is  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  with  a  wing  ex- 
panse of  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
It  is  blackish,  with  a  slight 
glaucous  bloom,  and  a  whitish 
longitudinal  line  along  the  mid- 
dle of  the  back.  The  wings  are 
subhyaline,  with  the  yeins  dark 
brown,  and  the  stigma  almost 
black.  The  antennas  and  legs 
are  quite  hairy.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  during  October  and 
Xovember,  on  the  leaflets,  in  rows.  Each  egg  is  not 
quite  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  elongate-oval,  brownish 
w<lien  first  laid,  but  becoming  black  in  a  short  time. 

Remedies. — Kerosene  emulsion  is  the  most  effec- 
tive insecticide  with  which  to  combat  this  insect.  It 
sliould  be  sjorayed  upon  the  infested  trees  early  in  the 
season,  before  the  aphides  become  too  abundant.  The 
best  time  to  apjily  it  would  be  just  after  the  young  lice" 
hatch  from  the  eggs ;  they  are  then  very  tender  and 
easily  killed. 


FIG.   97.       WHITE-PINE    APHIS 

Oviparous   female.     Magni 
fied. 


THE   WOOLLY   ALDER   APHIS  195 

The  Woolly  Alder  Aphis 

Pemphigus  tessellata 

In  the  Eastern  States  one  may  often  see  upon  the 
branches  of  alders  a  peculiar  white  woolly  growth,  re- 
sembling that  shown  on  Plate  XI.  This  white  sub- 
stance develops  upon  the  bodies  of  a  peculiar  plant  louse 
that  lives  upon  the  alder  stems.  Like  other  aphides 
these  insects  reproduce  by  giving  birth  to  living  young, 
by  which  means  they  are  able  to  increase  very  rapidly. 
In  autumn  vast  numbers  of  young  are  born  ;  they  crawl 
down  the  stems  to  the  ground  where  they  congregate  in 
enormous  numbers  in  the  crevices  between  the  base  of 
the  trunk  and  larger  roots  and  the  soil,  or  beneath  the 
fallen  leaves  or  otlier  rubbish  at  the  soil  surface.  Here 
the}/  remain  until  spring,  when  they  take  advantage  of 
the  first  warm  days  to  crawl  up  the  trunk  to  the  twigs, 
wliere  they  establish  colonies  on  the  young  growth. 
Each  aphis  inserts  its  beak  into  the  bark  and  sucks  out 
the  sap.  At  the  same  time  they  jn-oduce  on  their  backs 
a  white  pulverulence  which  forms  a  protective  covering. 
In  a  week  or  two  they  mature  and  begin  giving  birth  to 
living  young,  and  thereafter  during  the  season  one  gen- 
eration is  produced  after  another  until  cold  weather. 
No  sexual  forms  of  this  species  have  yet  been  found. 

There  are  usually  to  be  found  associated  with  the 
colonies  the  peculiar  black  excrescences  represented  in 
Plate  XI.  This«  is  due  to  a  fungus  which  develops  on 
the  abundant  juices — the  so-called  honeydew — excreted 
by  the  aphides. 

Remedies. — In  case  it  was  desired  to  get  rid  of 
these  insects  on  alder  in  parks  or  private  grounds  it 
could  easily  be  done  by  spraying  the  bare  stems  and  the 
ground  beneath  in  early  spring  with  a  strong  kerosene 
emulsion. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  SHADE  TREES 


INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Cecropia  Emperor  floth 

Platysamia  cecropia 

People  are  often  puzzled  daring  winter  over  large, 
peculiar,  grayish -brown  cocoons  (Fig.  99)  that  occur 
not  infrequently  on  the  limbs  of  maple,  apple,  pear, 
cherry,   and  a  great  yariety  of  fruit  and  shade  trees. 


CECROPIA    CATERPILLAR. 


These  are  the  cocoons  of  one  of  the  largest  and  hand- 
somest American  insects — the  cecropia  emperor  moth, 
illustrated,  natural  size,  at  Plate  XII.  This  moth  often 
measures  six  or  seven  inches  across  the  front  wings,  the 
ground  color  of  all  the  wrings  being  a  grizzled,  dusky 
brown, -with  the  hind  margins  clay-colored;  near  the 
middle  of  each  wing  there  is  an  opaque,  kidney-shaped, 
dull-red  spot,  having  a  white  center  and  a  narrow  black 
edging,  and  beyond  the  spot  there  is  a  wavy,  reddish 
band  bordered  internally  with  white.     The  fore  wings, 

197 


198  ITsTSECTS   AKD   IJfSECTICIDES 

next  to  the  shoulders,  are  dull  red  with  a  curved,  white 
band,  and  near  the  tips  of  the  same  is  an  eye-like  black 
spot  within  a  bluish-white  crescent.  The  upper  sides  of 
the  body  and  the  legs  are  reddish  ;  the  fore  part  of  the 
thorax  and  the  hinder  edges  of  the  rings  of  the  abdo- 
men are  white ;  the  under  surface  of  the  body  is  check- 
ered with  red  and  white. 

The  moths  come  forth  from  the  cocoons  in  June 
and  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  various  kinds  of  trees  upon 
which  the  larvae  live.  About  a  week  later  the  eggs 
hatch  into  small,  spiny  caterpillars,  that  devour  the 
foliage  and  rapidly  increase  in  size.     They  are  very  vora- 


FIG.  99.     COCOON  OF  CECROPIA  MOTH. 

cious,  and  reach  maturity  late  in  summer.  They  are 
then  (Fig.  98)  often  over  three  inches  long,  as  thick  as 
a  man's  thumb,  and  have,  along  the  back,  rows  of  large, 
coral-red  tubercles.  Early  in  autumn  they  spin  their 
silken  cocoons,  within  which  they  change  to  dark-brown 
pupae,  remaining  in  this  condition  until  the  following 
summer,  when  they  come  forth  as  moths  to  lay  eggs  for 
another  brood. 

There  are  several  species  of  parasites  that  prey  u2:)on 
the  cecropia  caterpillars.  On  this  account  they  only 
occasionally  become  injurious. 

Remedies. — By  spraying  with  the  arsenites,  or 
hand-picking  the  larvae  or  cocoons,  this  insect  may  be 
easily  checked  when  it  threatens  to  become  destructive. 


THE   WHITE   MARKED   TUSSOCK   MOTH  199 

The  White= marked   Tussock  Moth 

Orgyia  leucostigma 

This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  leaf -eating 
caterpillars,  and  during  recent  years  has  done  much 
damage  in  many  cities  and  villages.  The  larva  feeds 
ujDon  the  foliage  of  a  great  variety  of  fruit  and  shade 
trees. 

If  the  trunks  or  larger  limbs  of  maple,  apple,  elm, 
or  any  other  of  the  trees  infested  by  this  insect,  be  ex- 
amined any  time  in  autumn  or  winter,  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  one  may  find  scattered  here  and  there  upon 
the  bark  thin  gray  cocoons,  many  of  which  will  be  cov- 
ered with  large  bunches  of  spherical  white  eggs,  fastened 


FIG.  100,     CATERPILLAR  OF    WHITE-MARKED  TUSSOCK  MOTH. 

together  by  a  protecting  froth-like  mass.  In  May,  soon 
after  the  leaves  come  out,  these  eggs  hatch  into  small 
caterpillars,  which  at  once  begin  eating  the  foliage  about 
them.  They  continue  to  devour  it  for  six  or  seven 
weeks,  when  they  become  full-grown.  They  are  then 
very  handsome  (Fig.  100)  and  measure  a  little  over  an 
inch.  The  general  color  is  bright  yellow.  The  head 
and  two  tubercle-like  projections  on  the  hinder  portion 
of  the  back  are  of  a  bright  coral-red.  There  are  four 
cream-colored  tufts  of  hair  along  the  back.  Two  long 
black  plumes  project  forward  from  just  behind  the  sides 
of  the  head,  and  another  projects  backward  from  the 


200 


IN^SECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


posterior  end  of  the  body.  About  the  middle  of  July 
the  caterpillars  spin  thin,  whitish  cocoons  upon  the 
rougher  bark,  and  about  a  fortnight  later  come  forth  as 
moths.  These  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  which  com- 
pletes its  transformations  before  winter  sets  in.  The 
pupa  of  the  female  (Fig.  101,  c)  is  larger  than  that  of 
the  male  (d).  The  male  moth  differs  greatly  from  the 
female  moth,  the  former  being  winged  (e),  while  the 
latter  is  wingless  (a).     The  female  crawls  upon  the  top 


FIG.  101.  WHITE-MAKKED  TUSSOCK  MOTH,  a,  female  moth  on  cocoon ; 
6,  young  larva  hanging  by  thread;  c,  female  pupa;  rf,  male  pupa; 
e,  male  moth. 

of  the  cocoon  (a)  as  soon  as  she  emerges  from  the  pujDal 
state,  where,  after  mating  with  the  male,  she  deposits 
her  eggs  in  a  single  mass  and  dies. 

Remedies. — The  increase  of  this  insect  is  greatly 
checked  by  several  parasitic  enemies,  nearly  a  dozen 
species  of  two-winged  and  four-winged  flies  being  known 
to  prey  upon  it.  The  caterpillars  may  be  destroyed  by 
spraying  the  infested  trees  with  the  arsenites — Paris 
green  or  London  purple ;  or  the  egg  masses  may  be 
picked  off  the  bark  in  winter. 


THE   FALL  WEBWORM 


201 


The  Fall   Webworm 

Hyphantria  cimea 

The  work  of  few  insects  is  more  universally  known 
than  that  of  the  fall  webworm.  Late  in  summer  and 
early  in  autumn  the  conspicuous,  unsightly  webs  of  this 
pest  may  be  seen  in  nearly  every  orchard  and  hedgerow 
over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States.  The  adult  is 
a  pretty,  white  moth  (Fig.  102),  which  deposits  eggs  on 
the  leaves  of  various  trees  early  in  summer.  These  soon 
hatch  into  young  caterpillars  that  begin  at  once  to  spin 
a  protective  web. 
The  young  worms 
are  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  sparsely  cov- 
ered with  hairs,  and 
have  a  black  head 
and  two  rows  of 
black  marks  upon 
the  body.  They 
feed  upon  the  par- 
enchyma 01   the   10- FIG.  102.    FALL  WEnwoBM.    a,  larva ;  6,  pupa; 

liage,     leaving    the  c,  moth, 

network  of  veins,  and  grow  quite  rapidly,  enlarging  the 
web  as  they  develop.  By  the  time  they  are  full-grown 
a  single  lot  of  them  will  destroy  the  foliage  of  a  good- 
sized  branch,  making  it  very  conspicuous  on  account  of 
the  web-like  covering.  At  this  time  the  larvae  are  a 
little  more  than  an  inch  long  [a),  with  the  body  densely 
clothed  with  yellowish  hairs.  They  now  leave  their 
nests  and  descend  to  the  ground,  where  just  beneath  the 
surface,  or  under  some  suitable  shelter  above  the  surface, 
they  spin  slight,  silken  cocoons  within  which  they 
change  to  the  chr}'salis  state.  At  the  North  there  is 
but  one  brood  each  year,  but  in  the  Southern  States 
there  are  two. 


202  Il<rSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

Remedies. — The  webs  of  this  insect  are  so  con- 
spicuous that  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  cut  them  off  and 
burn  or  crush  the  larvae.  This  is  a  simple  remedy,  and 
the  earlier  it  is  done  the  better.  The  pest  may  also  be 
destroyed  by  spraying  with  London  purple  or  Paris 
green  when  the  larvae  are  young. 

The  Imported  Elm=leaf  Beetle 

Galeruca  xanthomelcena 

During  the  recent  years  this  insect  has  been  exceed- 
ingly destructive  in  many  cities  of  the  Eastern  States  to 
that  loveliest  of  shade  trees — the  elm.  It  has  long  been 
known  in  the  Old  World,  having  been  especially  injuri- 
ous in  France  and  Germany,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  imported  into  America  during  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century.  The  eggs  (Fig.  103,  a)  are  laid  on  the 
underside  of  the  leaf  in  two  or  three  rows,  each  group 
consisting  of  from  five  to  twenty  eggs.  At  e  in  the  fig- 
ure they  ai'e  shown  considerably  magnified,  and  as  will 
be  seen  they  are  very  close  together,  and  fastened  se- 
curely to  the  leaf.  In  about  a  week  the  larvae  hatch  and 
begin  eating  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  look  as  if  rid- 
dled with  fine  shot.  They  become  fully  grown  {g)  in 
two  or  three  weeks,  when  they  descend  to  the  ground, 
and,  finding  some  convenient  shelter,  change  to  pupae 
(y).  Ten  days  later  the  perfect  beetles  {n,  natural  size ; 
h,  magnified)  come  forth  and  eat  the  leaves,  although 
the  damage  done  by  the  insect  in  this  beetle  state  is 
much  less  than  that  done  by  the  young,  growing  larvae. 
There  are  three  or  four  broods  each  season,  and  the 
beetles  pass  the  winter  in  whatever  shelter  they  can  find, 
especially  congregating  in  hollow  trees,  and  under  old 
leaves. 

Remedies. — This  pest  can  be  held  in  check  by 
spraying  with  London  purple  or  Paris  green  (4  ozs.  to 


THE  IMPORTED  ELM  LEAF  BEETLE 


203 


50  gals,  water).  The  application  slioulcl  be  made  when 
the  eggs  are  being  laid,  in  order  to  kill  the  larvae  before 
they  have  done  any  damage.     The  addition  of  a  little 


FIG.  103.    EiiM-LEAF  BEETLE,    a,  eggs ;  6,  larvae;  c,  beetle— aU  natural 
size;  e,  eggs;  gr,  larva;  j, pupa;  k,  beetle;  e  to  /fc  magnified. 

flour  to  the  poison  mixture  seems  to  render  it  more  ef- 
fective. To  reach  the  tops  of  high  trees  a  pump  of  con- 
siderable power  is  required. 


204 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


The  Bagworm 

Thyridopteryx  epliemermformis 

The  twigs  of  various  deciduous  and  coniferous  trees 
are  often  infested  during  the  winter  months  by  small 
bags  or  sacs  (of  the  form  shown  at  Fig.  104,  e)  suspended 
to  the  leaves  or  branches.  If  one  of  the  larger  of  these 
bags  be  cut  open,  there  will  be  found  within  it  a  brown, 
membranous  shell  (the  pupa  case  of  the  moth)  filled 


FIG.  104.  BAGWOKM.  a,  lai'va;  6,  male  pupa;  e,  female  moth ;  rf,  male 
moth ;  e,  bag  and  pupa  case  cut  open  to  show  eggs ;  /,  full-grown 
larva  with  bag;  g,  young  larvae  with  their  conical  coverings. 

with  many  small  yellow  eggs  (e).  In  this  condition  the 
bagworm  or  basket  worm  passes  the  winter.  Late  in 
spring  the  larvae  hatch,  and  at  once  form  little  cases  of 
fragments  of  leaves  fastened  together  by  silken  threads. 
Beneath  these  cases  [g)  they  feed  upon  the  foliage,  en- 
larging them  as  the  larvae  develop,  and  during  later  life 
using  bits  of  twigs  or  stems  in  their  construction,  in- 
stead of  leaf  particles.  The  full-grown  larva  is  repre- 
sented in  its  bag  at  /,  and  without  it  at  a.     When  fully 


THE  BAGWORM 


205 


developed  the  worms  descend  to  the  earth  by  means  of 
silken  threads,  and  crawl  about  until  they  reach  the 
bases  of  other  trees,  which  they  ascend.  This  is  the 
way  the  species  migrates.  The  larvae  pupate  within  the 
cases,  and  about  three  weeks   later  change  to  moths. 


iK 
-^^.m^^..^ 

K^ 

f^ 

"^^ 

^^ 

#f 

if 

V 

f: 

& 

. -A  ■ 

1^ 

f 

j 

/ 

/f 

.^     ■ 

FIG.  105.      BAGWORM  CASES  ON   TKEES.    a,  led  cedar;    b,  maple;   c, 
arbor  vitae;  d,  spruce  ;*e,  white  pine. 

The  two  sexes  of  the  moths  differ  greatly,  the  male  (104, 
d)  having  well-developed  wings,  while  the  female  (c)  is 
wingless.  The  latter  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  empty 
pupa  case  from  which  she  has  emerged,  and  falls  to  the 
ground,  where  soon  afterward  she  dies. 


206  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

The  bagworm  feeds  upon  a  great  variety  of  trees, 
and  api^arently  prefers  coniferous  to  deciduous  sorts. 
Red  cedar  and  arbor  vitse  are  especially  subject  to  attack. 
Its  injuries  are  sometimes  very  severe  on  shade  trees  in 
city  streets  and  public  parks.  There  are  several  para- 
sitic insects  that  prey  upon  the  larvae. 

Remedies. — The  simplest  remedy  for  this  insect  is 
that  of  spraying  v/ith  London  pur^^le  or  Paris  green. 
This  should  be  done  in  early  summer  when  the  worms 
are  young.  Effective  work  also  can  be  done,  according 
to  Dr.  Riley,  '^'during  the  winter  time  or  when  the  trees 
are  bare.  The  bags  which  contain  the  hibernating  eggs, 
and  which  are  very  easily  detected  then,  may  be  gathered 
or  pruned  and  burned.  This  work  may  be  so  easily 
done  that  there  is  no  excuse  for  the  increase  of  this  spe- 
cies. Where  intelligent  action  is  possible,  the  bags 
were  better  collected  and  heaped  together  in  some  open 
enclosure  away  from  trees,  rather  than  burned.  By  this 
means  most  of  the  parasites  will  in  time  escape,  while 
the  young  bagworms,  which  will  in  time  hatch,  and 
which  have  feeble  traveling  power,  must  needs  perish 
from  inability  to  reach  proper  food." 

The  Qreen=striped  Maple  Worm 

Anisota  riihicunda 

In  many  Western  States  maple  trees  are  regularly 
defoliated  by  a  large  caterpillar,  alternrtely  striped  with 
light  yellowish-green  and  dark-green,  having  two  long, 
black  horns  on  the  second  segment  behind  the  head, 
and  other  similar  but  shorter  horns  on  the  posteiior  seg- 
ments (Fig.  106,  a).  This  is  the  green-striped  maple 
worm.  It  is  the  larva  of  a  handsome,  yellowish-pink 
moth  (c),  sometimes  called  the  rosy  Dryocampa.  These 
moths  appear  early  in  summer,  and  lay  their  eggs  on 
the  undersides  of   the  maple  leaves  in  clusters  varying 


THE   GREEN   STRIPED   MAPLE   WORM 


207 


from  forty  to  eighty  each.  The  larvae  hatch  in  a  week 
or  ten  days,  and  feed  upon  the  foliage,  being  gregarious 
at  first,  but  gradually  spreading  as  they  grow  older.  In 
a  few  weeks  they  become  fully  developed  as  larvae,  hav- 
ing molted  four  times,  when  they  descend  to  the 
ground,  where,  just  beneath  the  soil  surface,  they  change 
to  dark-brown  pupae  (b).  About  a  fortnight  later  they 
come^  forth  as  moths  again.  These  moths,  which  usu- 
ally appear  during  July  or  August,  lay  eggs  for  a  second 
brood  of  larvae  that  develop  during  late  summer  or  early 


FIG.  106.    GREEN-STRIPED  MAPLE  WORM,    a,  larva;  6,  pupa;  c,  moth 


autumn,  and  pass  the  winter  as  pupge,  emerging  as  moths 
the  following  summer. 

The  second  brood  of  larvae  are  much  more  numer- 
ous, and  consequently  more  destructive,  than  the  first. 
Although  maple  forms  the  favorite  food  plant  of  the 
insect,  it  is  occasionally  found  upon  oaks  and  a  few  other 
trees.  The  larvae  are  preyed  upon  by  various  insectiv- 
orous birds,  and  by  several  insect  parasites. 

Remedies. — Spraying  with  London  purple  or 
Pans  green  early  in  the  season,  just  after  the  worms 
hatch,  is  the  most  effective  remedy  for  this  insect. 


208 


INSECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 


The    Walnut  Caterpillar 

Datana  angusii 

The  leaves  of  walnut  and  bufcternut  trees  are  fre- 
quently eaten  during  summer  by  a  large,  blackish  cater- 
pillar. This  is  the  larva  of  a  good-sized  moth'  that 
makes  its  appearance  from  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
first  of  July,  and  deposits  its  eggs,  seventy  to  a  hundred 
in  a  place,  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.     In  a 


FIG.  107.    YELLOW-NECKED  APPLE  WORM,    a,  iaiva ;  h,  moth ;  c,  eggs— 
an  natural  size;  d,  egg,  magnified. 

short  time  the  larvae  hatch  and  begin  feeding  upon  the 
foliage.  They  increase  rapidly  in  size,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  attract  attention  on  account  of  the  defoliated 
twigs  where  they  have  been  at  work.  They  are  gregari- 
ous in  habit,  and  at  the  times  of  molting,  or  casting  of 
the  skin,  they  migrate  in  a  body  to  the  trunk  of  the  tree, 
frequently  descending  nearly  to  its  base,  and,  piling 
themselves  one  upon  another,  remain  in  a  solid  mass 
until  the  process  is  completed.  Then  they  crawl  back 
to  the  twigs  and  begin  feeding  again.  When  fully  grown 
as  caterpillars,  they  go  to  the  ground  and  change  to  the 
pupal  state,  just  beneath  the  soil  surface.  Here  they 
remain  until  early  the  following  summer,  when  they 
emerge  as  moths  to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood. 


THE   WOOLLY    MAPLE    BARK    LOUSE  209 

A  fair  idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  walnut  cater- 
pillar and  its  moth  may  be  obtained  from  Fig.  107, 
which  represents  a  closely  related  insect — the  yellow- 
necked  apple-tree  caterpillar.  When  at  rest  or  alarmed 
the  larvae  assume  the  peculiar  position  represented  at  a. 
These  caterpillars  are  preyed  upon  by  certain  birds, 
notably  the  blue  jay  and  red-headed  woodj)ecker,  and  by 
various  species  of  insect  parasites. 

Remedies. — These  defoliators  may  be  destroyed 
by  spraying  their  food  plants  with  Paris  green  or  London 
purple,  or  the  larvae  may  be  crushed  when  gathered  into 
heaps  on  the  trunk  at  molting  tim-e. 

The  Woolly  Maple=bark  Louse 

Piilvinaria  tmiumerahilis 

'  The  presence  of  this  insect  is  manifested  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer  by  the  occurrence  upon  tlie 
twigs  of  maple  trees,  especially  on  the  underside,  of  a 
brown,  circular,  leathery  scale,  about  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  beneath  which  is  a  2Deculiar,  flnffy, 
cottony  mass  (Fig.  108,  a).  In  the  spring  there  may  be 
found  in  each  of  these  masses  great  numbers  (from  700 
to  1000)  of  small,  white,  spherical  eggs.  Early  in  sum- 
mer these  eggs  hatch  into  young  lice,  which  scatter  over 
the  trees,  wandering  about  on  the  twigs  and  leaves  for  a 
few  days,  and,  finally,  fixing  themselves  upon  the  lower 
leaf  surface,  insert  their  tiny  beaks  and  suck  out  the  sap. 
They  remain  in  this  position  several  weeks,  when  a  few 
of  them  become  fully  developed  winged  males.  These 
mate  with  the  remainder,  which  are  females,  and  soon 
die.  But  the  females  remain  upon  tlie  leaves  until 
nearly  time  for  them  to  fall  in  autumn,  w^hen  they  de- 
sert them  and  migrate  to  the  twigs,  attaching  themselves 
by  inserting  their  beaks  into  the  bark.  Here  they  re- 
14 


210 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


main  until  the  following  season,  the  eggs  gradually  de- 
veloping and  being  deposited  during  spring. 

These  insects  sometimes  do  great  damage  to  maple 
trees.  They  excrete  or  secrete  a  peculiar  liquid  which 
falls  upon  the  leaves  and  the  ground  beneath  the  trees, 
and  which  is  sometimes  called  ^Mioneydew."  There  are 
a  large  number  of  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects  that 


FIG.  108.    MAPLE-p.AiiK    LOUSE,    a,  cottony  scales  on  twigs;    6,  back 
view  of  scale,  magnified;  c,  ventral  view  of  scale,  more  magnified. 

prey   upon    this    species    and    suppress    its    periodical 
uprisings. 

Remedies. — In  cities  where  a  stream  of  water  from 
hose  connected  with  waterworks  is  available,  the  trees 
can  be  largely  cleared  of  the  pests  by  rej^eated  drench- 
ings.  In  the  spring  before  the  eggs  hatch,  and  also 
while  the  young  lice  are  crawling  over  the  tree,  soon 
after  hatching,  is  the  best  time  for  this  work.      The 


THE   BOX   ELDER  BUG. 


211 


young  lice  may  also  be  easily  destroyed  by  spraying  with 
kerosene  emulsion.  This  should  be  done  in  June,  soon 
after  they  hatch. 


The  Box=elder  Bug 

Le2)tocoris  trivittatus 

In  the  region  west  of  the  Missouri  riyer  this  insect 
is  extremely  abundant,  causing  serious  injury  to  the 
box  elder,  and  occasionally,  also,  to  ash,  maple,  and 
other  trees.  The  adult  (Fig.  109)  is  a  dull-black  bug 
about  half  an  inch  long,  having  blood  red  ocelli,  and 
various  red  markings  on  the  wings  and 
body.  ''During  the  winter,"  according 
to  Professor  E.  A.  Popenoe,  who  has 
studied  the  insect  carefully,  ''the  adults 
are  hidden  in  sheltered  nooks  and  cor- 
ners everywhere,  but  are  especially  abun- 
dant in  crevices  of  stone  walls  and  angles 
of  stone  buildings,  on  the  south  sides  of 
which  they  appear,  singly  and  in  clusters, 
every  warm  day  during  the  season.  As 
soon  as  the  increasing  warmth  of  spring 
allows,  they  leave  these  shelters  and  seek 
the  trees  attacked  by  them.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  creases  of  the  bark,  on  the  trunk  and  twigs. 
After  midsummer  their  gregarious  tendency  is  manifested 
in  the  flocking  of  bugs  of  all  sizes  and  in  great  numbers, 
in  lines  np  and  down  the  trunks  and  branches,  the  com- 
pany including  larvae  of  all  sizes,  pupae,  and  fully  ma- 
tured individuals.  This  habit  persists  more  or  less  com- 
pletely until  October  and  November,  or  until  the  trees 
are  bare.  During  the  warm  days  of  Indian  summer  the 
bugs  fly  everywhere,  flocking  to  the  warm  sides  of  the 
buildings,  and  entering  houses,  where,  though  otherwise 
harmless,  they  become  troublesome  through  their  abun- 


FIG.   109.      BOX- 
ELDER  BUG. 
Magnified. 


212  IKSECTS   AN^D  INSECTICIDES 

dance  and  propensity  to  fall  clumsily  into  pails  of  water, 
crocks  of  milk,  and  other  articles  of  food  left  uncovered." 

This  insect,  like  all  true  bugs,  is  active  during  its 
entire  existence,  and  gets  its  food  by  sucking  sap  through 
a  sharp-pointed  beak  which  is  inserted  into  the  bark  of 
the  succulent  twigs,  and  also  into  the  leaves.  It  has 
comparatively  few  natural  enemies. 

Remedies. — These  bugs  may  easily  be  destroved 
when  gathered  in  clusters  on  trees  or  walls  by  pouring 
boiling  water,  gasoline  or  kerosene  upon  them. 

The  Gypsy  Moth 

Ocneria  clisjmr 

The  gypsy  moth  is  one  of  the  most  troublesome  in- 
sects in  Europe.     It  feeds  on  an  extraordinary  variety 

of  plants,  attacking  almost 
everything,  and  is  difficult 
to  destroy  by  natural  or 
artificial  means.  As  is  well 
known,  it  was  introduced 
into  the  vicinity  of  Boston 
twenty-five  years  ago  and 
•  has  since  become  very  de- 
FiG.  no.  GYPSY  MOTH.  Male,  gtructivc  in  that  region. 
In  1891  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  established  a 
commission  for  the  extermination  of  the  insect,  and 
has  since  appropriated  a  large  amount  of  money 
to  carry  on  the  work,  which  has  already  checked 
the  outbreak  to  a  remarkable  degree.  It  is  much 
to  be  hoped  that  the  work  will  be  continued  unabated 
for  several  years. 

There  is  an  idea  somewhat  prevalent  that  this  insect 
could  be  exterminated  by  importing  parasites,  but  this 
is  fallacious.  In  my  opinion  it  would  be  a  great  mis- 
take to  abandon  the  work  of  extermination  and  leave  it 


THE   GYPSY   MOTH 


213 


to  be  done  by  parasites.  Under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions there  could  only  result  a  long  series  of  oscilla- 
tions in  the  numbers  of  the  moths,  in  which  periods  of 
destruction  would  alternate  with  periods  of  immunity. 


FIG.  111.    GYPSY  MOTH.    Female. 


The  later  stages  of  the  gypsy  moth  are  illustrated 
in  the  accompanying  figures.  The  male  moths  are 
much  smaller  than  the  females.  *^The  full-grown  cat- 
erpillar is  about  an   inch  and  three-fourths  in  length, 


FIG.   112.     GYPSY-MOTH   CATERPILLAR. 

very  dark  brown  or  black,  fiuely  reticulated  with  pale 
yellow.  There  is  a  pale  yellow  line  along  the  middle  of 
the  back  and  a  similar  one  along  each  side.  On  the 
first  six  segments  following  the  head  there  is  a  bluish 


214  INSECTS    AND   INSECTICIDES 

tubercle,  armed  with  several  black  spines  on  each  side 
of  the  dorsal  line,  and  on  the  remaining  segments  these 
tubercles  are  dark  crimson-red.  In  the  middle  of  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  segments  there  is  a  smaller  red  tuber- 
cle notched  at  the  top.     The  whole  surface  of  the  body 


FIG.  113.     CHRYSALIS  OF    GYPSY    MOTH. 

is  somewhat  hairy,  but  along  each  side  the  hairs  are 
long  and  form  quite  dense  clusters." 

Various  methods  of  controlling  this  pest  are  in  use 
in  Massachusetts.  The  most  important  are  those  of 
spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  to  kill  the  young  cater- 
pillars, and  the  mechanical  destruction  of  the  eggs. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  ROSE 


INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The   Rose  Slug 

roscB 


This  insect  is  familiar  to  most  lovers  of  the  queen 
of  flowers,  and  is  justly  dreaded  on  account  of  its  serious 
injuries.  But  no  one  should  allow  it  to  prevent  the 
planting  and  enjoyment  of  roses,  for  it  is  easy  to  keep 
the  pest  in  check. 

The  rose  slug  is  the  young  or  larva  of  a  four-winged 
sawfly,  related  to  the  parent  of  the  pear-tree  slug  and 
the  imported  currant  worm.  It  bears  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  adult  pear-tree  slug.  The  larvae  shown  in 
Fig.  114  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  appearance  and 
mode  of  work  of  the  rose  slug.  According  to  Dr.  Har- 
ris, the  parent  sawflies,  in  the  latitude  of  Massachusetts, 
"come  out  of  the  ground  at  various  times  between  the 
20th  of  May  and  the  middle  of  June,  during  which  season 
they  pair  and  lay  their  eggs.  The  females  when  about 
to  lay  their  eggs  turn  a  little  to  one  side,  unsheath  their 
saws,  and  thrust  them  obliquely  into  the  skin  of  the 
leaf,  depositing  in  each  incision  thus  made  a  single  egg. 
The  young  begin  to  hatch  in  ten  days  or  a  fortnight 
after  the  eggs  are  laid.  The  period  of  their  existence  in 
the  caterpillar  state  probably  does  not  exceed  three 
weeks.  They  have  a  small,  round,  yellowish  hend,  Avith 
a  black  dot  on  each  side  of  it,  and  are  provided  witli 

215 


216  INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 

twenty-two  short  legs.  The  body  is  green  above,-  paler 
at  the  sides,  and  is  soft  and  almost  transparent,  like 
jelly.  The  skin  of  the  back  is  transversely  wrinkled,  and 
covered  with  minute  elevated  points ;  and  there  are  two 
small,  triple-pointed  warts  on  the  edge  of  the  first  ring, 
immediately  behind  tlie  head.  These  gelatinous  and 
sluggish  creatures  eat  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  in 
large,  irregular  patches,  leaving  the  veins  and  skin  be- 
neath untouched  ;  and  they  are  sometimes  so  thick  that 
not  a  leaf  on  the  bushes  is  spared  by  them,  and  the 

whole  foliage  looks 
as  if  it  had  been 
scorched  by  fire  and 
drops  off  soon  after- 
wards. They  cast 
their  skins  several 
FIG.  114.   PEAR-TREE  SLUG.  tiuics,  Icavlug  thcm 

extended  and  fastened  to  the  leaves ;  and  after  the  last 
molting  they  lose  their  semi-transparent  and  greenish 
color,  and  acquire  an  opaqne,  yellowish  hue.  They 
then  leave  the  bushes  and  burrow  an  inch  or  more  in 
the  earth,  where  each  one  makes  for  itself  a  small,  oval 
cell  of  grains  of  earth,  cemented  with  a  little  gummy 
silk."  They  remain  in  these  pupa  cells  until  the  fol- 
lowing season,  when  they  emerge  as  flies. 

There  are  two  other  species  of  slugs  affecting  the 
rose,  and  in  some  places  these  are  more  abundant  than 
the  one  here  described.  An  account  of  their  habits  may 
be  found  in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture for  1892,  p.  161.  The  same  remedial  meas- 
ures apply  to  all  three  si^ecies. 

Remedies. — In  cities  where  a  stream  of  water  from 
a  sprinkling  hose  is  always  available,  the  simplest  plan 
of  keeping  these  pests  away  is  to  spray  the  bushes  forci- 
bly every  day  or  two,  to  frighten  away  the  flies  and 
wash  off  the  larvae.     If  this  jjrocess  is  gone  through 


THE    ROSE    LEAF   HOPPEE 


217 


with  sufficient  force  aucl  thoroughness,  it  is  the  neatest 
and  best  remedy.  The  shigs  also  may  be  easily  killed  by 
spraying  or  dusting  the  infested  bushes  with  hellebore 
or  insect  powder. 

The  Rose=Ieaf  Hopper 

TyiMocyla   rosm 

■  Owners  of  rose  bushes  are  frequently  annoyed  by 
finding  the  lower  sides  of  the  leaves  covered  with  a  small 
white  insect  that  sucks  out  the  cell  contents  and  gives 
the  upper  surfaces  a 
peculiar  white-s^Dot- 
ted  appearance. 
This  is  the  rose-leaf 
hopper,  a  species  that 
has  been  known  to 
injure  these  lovely 
ornamental  plants  for 
nearly  a  century. 
The  adult,  shown 
considerably  magni- 
fied at  Fig.  115,  a, 
is  a  little  more  than  fig.  iis 
one-tenth  of  an  inch 
long,  with  a  yellowish-white  body,  and  white,  semi-trans- 
parent wing  covers.  In  common  with  other  leaf  hop- 
pers this  insect  has  long  hind  legs,  by  means  of  which  it 
is  enabled  to  make  tremendously  long  leaps  when  dis- 
turbed. The  fully  grown  nymph  {h)  is  also  whitish,  and 
its  back  is  well  protected  by  numerous  long  spinous  hairs. 
There  are  said  to  be  several  broods  each  season. 

Remedies. — These  little  pests  are  much  easier  to 
destroy  before  they  are  fully  developed  than  afterwards. 
Spraying  or  dusting  the  infested  plants  with  pyrethrum 
or  insect  powder  is  a  simple  and  efficient  remedy.  To- 
bacco, in  the  form  either  of  a  powder  or  a  decoction,  is 
also  good ;  and  kerosene  emulsion  will  destroy  the  pests. 


ROSE-LEAF  HOPPER,     a,  adult ;  b, 
pupa.    Magnified. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  FLOWERS  IN 
WINDOW    GARDEN   AND 
GREENHOUSE 


THE 


INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

Plant  Lice  or  Aphides 

There  are  many  different  species  of  aphides,  plant 
lice,  or  ^^ green  flies,"  affecting  the  various  floweriug 
plants.     But  all  are  quite  similar   in  life  history  and 

habits, and  the  same 
remedies  apply  to 
each.  They  all  mul- 
tiply with  marvel- 
lous rai^idity  on  ac- 
count of  their  habit 
of  giving  birth  to 
living  young,  with- 
out the  presence  of 
male  aphides.  They 

«,  wingless  form,  magnified ;  ^^^ture  rapidly,  and 
b,  winged   form,   magnified;    c,    same,   nat-  ,  ^  . 

uraisize.  obtain  food  by  in- 

serting their  pointed  beaks  into  the  stem  or  leaf,  and  suck- 
ing out  the  sap.  There  are  generally  tw^o  forms  of  them, 
one  being  winged  (Fig.  116,  h,  c)  and  the  other  wing- 
less {a).  These  insects  are  the  commonest  pests  of 
flowering  plants. 

Remedies. — Tobacco  is  the  great  specific  for  these 
insects.     It  may  be  used  in  various  forms,  but  generally 
the  most  satisfactory  form  is  that  of  the  refuse  powder 
218 


FIG.  116.     APHIS 


THE    RED    SPIDER  219 

of  the  cigar  factories.  This  should  be  used  freely  as  a 
mulch  for  low-growing  plants,  such  as  the  daisy ;  and  if 
blown  upon  infested  plants,  having  first  sprayed  them 
with  water,  by  meaus  of  a  powder  bellow^s  orLeggett's 
powder  gun,  it  will  clear  them  readily.  In  greenhouses 
tobacco  stems  are  commonly  used  to  smoke  the  plants. 
A  few  live  coals  are  put  upon  a  shovel,  or  into  a  metal 
bucket,  and  refuse  tobacco  stems  are  laid  upon  them. 
The  house  is  then  tightly  closed  and  the  smoke  allowed 
to  remain  several  hours.  The  greatest  objection  to  this 
method  is  that  tender  plants  are  liable  to  be  seriously 
injured  by  an  overdose  of  the  smoke.  The  tobacco 
may  also  be  used  in  the  form  of  a  decoction,  made  by 
pouring  hot  water  on  the  stems,  allowing  it  to  cool,  and 
then  drawing  off  the  liquid.  This  may  be  sprayed  upon 
the  plants,  or,  where  not  too  large,  the  plants  may  be 
dipped  into  the  liquid.  For  window  gardens  this  is  jier- 
haps  as  satisfactory  a  method  as  can  be  suggested. 

The   Red    Spider 

Tetranychus  telarius 

Greenhouse  j^lants  are  often  seriously  injured  by 
multitudes  of  very  minute  reddish  mites  that  congregate 
on  the  lower  leaf  surface,  spinning  a  very  fine  protective 
web,  and  sucking  out  the  juices  of  the  plants  through 
their  infinitesimal  beaks.  These  little  creatures  are 
commonly  called  red  spiders.  They  are  distantly  related 
to  ordinary  spiders,  and  like  them  have,  when  fully  de- 
veloped, four  pairs  of  legs.  They  multiply  beneath  their 
silken  webs,  where  one  may  find  colonies  of  individnals 
(so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye)  in 
all  stages  of  existence.  The  young  have  but  three  pairs 
of  legs.  The  Qg^  is  very  small  and  spherical,  being 
nearly  colorless.  The  infested  leaves  assume  a  yellowish 
hue,  and  many  of  them  finally  drop  off. 


2:10  INSECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 

Remedies. — The  red  spider  flourishes  best  in  a 
di-y  atmosx)here.  It  is  seldom  troublesome  in  green- 
houses where  the  air  is  kept  saturated  with  moisture  and 
the  plants  are  sprayed  with  water  every  day.  In  window 
gardens  the  plants  should  be  sprayed  with  soapsuds, 
tobacco  decoction  or  kerosene  emulsion,  or  dusted  with 
fine  tobacco  powder  or  insect  powder,  as  soon  as  they 
show  signs  of  the  presence  of  this  pest. 

Mealy   Bugs  and   Scale   Lice 

Mealy  bugs  are  among  the  commonest  and  most 
vexatious  greenhouse  pests.  They  occur  upon  a  great 
yariety  of.  plants,  and  reproduce  freely  throughout  the 
year.  There  are  two  or  three  species  commonly  found 
in  this  country,  the  most  destructive,  perhaps,  being  the 
species  called  by  entomologists  Dactylopius  adonidum, 
which  is  distinguished  by  two  long,  white,  cottony 
threads  extending  backward  from  the  last  segment  of 
the  abdomen.  Another  common  species  is  called  Dac- 
tylopius  destructor. 

Mealy  bugs  derive  their  common  name  from  a  pe- 
culiar yellowish-white  substance,  resembling  flour  or 
meal,  which  they  throw  out  from  numerous  minute 
pores  along  the  sides  of  their  bodies.  This  serves  both 
as  a  protection  from  enemies,  and  also  as  a  place  of  con- 
ceal nient  for  the  eggs  of  the  insects. 

Woody  greenhouse  plants,  such  as  the  oleander, 
orange,  abutilon,  etc.,  are  also  often  infested  with  scale 
insects  that  occur  upon  the  stems,  sucking  out  the  sap 
and  so  absorbing  the  vitality  of  the  plants.  These  be- 
long to  the  same  family  of  insects  as  the  mealy  bugs,  to 
which  they  bear  a  general  resemblance  in  life  history 
and  habits. 

Remedies. — When  a  pLint  is  once  badly  infested 
with  either  of  these  pests  it  can  be  cleared  only  by  thor- 


MEALY   BUGS   AND   SCALE   LICE  221 

ough  and  careful  work.  As  many  should  be  rubbed  or 
brushed  off  by  hand  as  possible,  and  then  the  plant  may 
be  sprayed  with  kerosene  emulsion,  which,  however, 
should  be  used  with  caution  on  the  more  tender  varie- 
ties of  greenhouse  plants.  It  is  not  necessary  to  treat 
the  whole  plant,  but  only  the  parts  infested  by  the  in- 
sect. In  case  only  a  few  mealy  bugs  are  present  they 
may  be  killed  by  dipping  a  small  brush  in  alcohol  and 
then  saturating  the  colonies  of  the  insect  with  it.  Or 
the  affected  part  of  the  plant  may  be  washed  with  a 
forcible  stream  of  water  till  all  signs  of  the  insects  or 
their  eggs  are  removed.  Professor  Comstock  reports  an 
experiment  in  which  equal  parts  of  smoking  tobacco  and 
flowers  of  sulphur  were  ground  together  in  a  mortar 
until  thoroughly  mixed,  aiid  the  compound  thus  formed 
was  dusted  over  wet  infested  plants,  and  the  mealy  bugs 
destroyed. 

Out  of  doors,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  green- 
house also,  these  mealy  bugs  and  scale  insects  have  vari- 
ous natural  enemies  to  contend  with.  Chief  among 
these  are  the  little  ladybugs  and  certain  parasitic  flies. 


Insects  affecting  vegetables 


INSECTS  AFFECTING   THE  TOMATO 


INJURING   THE    LEAVES 

The  Tomato   Worm 

ProtojMvce   celeus 

This  insect  in  its  larval  state  is  familiar  to  every- 
one who  has  owned  a  garden.  The  moths,  which  be- 
long to  the  handsome  sphinx  family,  appear  early  in 
summer,  and  fly  about  just  at  dusk,  sipping  the  nectar 
from  various  flowers  through  their  long  tongues  or  suck- 
ing tubes.     Their  general  appearance  is  well  illustrated 


FIG.  117.      PUPA  OF   TOMATO  WORM. 

at  Plate  XIII.  The  ground  color  of  the  body  and  wings  is 
gray,  and  there  are  various  dots  and  stripes  of  different 
shades.  On  each  side  of  the  abdomen  are  five  orange- 
colored  spots.  The  female  moths  lay  the  eggs  in  the 
evening  on  tomato  plants,  where  they  soon  hatch  into 
green  worms  that  feed  voraciously  on  the  foliage.  These 
caterpillars  grow  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  weeks  become 
three  inches  long  and  nearly  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger. 
They  are  light  green,  with  several  oblique,  whitish  stripes 
along  each  side  of  the  body  ;  sometimes  brown  specimens 
are  found.  Early  in  September,  in  the  Northern  States, 
these  caterpillars  complete  their  larval  growth,  and  bur- 
15  225 


226 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


row  into  the  ground  some  distance,  where  they  form 
oval  cells  in  the  soil,  shed  their  larval  skins,  and  change 
to  pupae.  The  pupa  or  chrysalis  (Fig.  117)  is  of  chest- 
nut-brown -color,  with  a  long  and  slender  tongue  case 
bent  over  like  the  handle  of  a  jug.  They  remain  in  this 
state  until  the  following  summer,  when  they  come  forth 
as  moths.  Besides  the  leaves,  the  caterpillars  often  feed 
upon  the  green  fruit  of  the  tomato,  as  well  as  upon  the 
foliage  of  the  potato  and  tobacco. 

There  is  another  species  similar  to  this  one,  and 
often  confounded  with  it.  The  life  history  and  habits 
of  the  two  are  much  alike.     The  moth  of  the  other  one 


FIG.  118.     TOMATO  WORM  WITH  COCOONS  OP  PARASITE. 

is  called  the  Carolina  sphinx  (Protoparce  Carolina).  In 
the  Southern  States,  and  even  as  far  north  as  Central 
Ohio,  there  are  two  broods  each  season. 

The  tomato  worm  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  a 
small,  four- winged  black  fly  that  deposits  eggs  beneath 
its  skin  along  the  back.  The  eggs  hatch  into  little  mag- 
gots that  absorb  the  body  juices  of  the  worm,  develop- 
ing at  its  expense,  and  finally  coming  out  upon  its  back, 
where  they  spin  white,  silken  cocoons  (Fig.  118),  within 


THE  TOMATO  WORM  227 

which  they  change  to  pupae.  Shortly  afterward  they 
again  change  to  flies  that  gnaw  out  of  the  cocoons  and 
fly  away  to  continue  the  work  of  destruction.  The  cat- 
erpillar lingers  awhile  in  a  half-dead  condition,  and 
finally  dies. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking  the  worms  is  the  most 
effective  remedy  for  garden  patches.  Their  depredations 
are  so  conspicuous  that  it  is  generally  easy  to  find  them. 
Tlie  moths  may  be  destroyed  (and  consequently  the  de- 
position of  eggs  prevented)  by  smearing  flat  boards  in 
various  parts  of  the  field  with  molasses  mixed  with  stale 
beer,  to  which  a  little  fly  poison  has  been  added.  The 
boards  should  be  a  foot  or  two  from  the  ground.  Another 
method  which  is  especially  recommended  for  killing  the 
moths  in  tobacco  fields,  is  to  plant,  at  occasional  inter- 
vals in  the  field,  seed  of  Jamestown  weed  (Datura  stra- 
monuim)  about  the  time  the  tobacco  is  put  out.  These 
will  come  in  blossom  when  the  moths  appear.  If  a  little 
fly  poison,  mixed  with  sweetened  water  and  whiskey,  be 
poured  in  the  long  blossoms  each  evening,  the  moths 
that  sip  the  liquid  will  be  killed. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE   POTATO 


INJURING  THE  STEM 

The   Potato=stalk  Weevil 

Triclioharis   trinotata 

Potato  stems  are  sometimes  infested  by  a  whitish  or 
yellowish- white,  footless  grub,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  which  burrows  in  the  heart  of  the  stalk,  espe- 
cially near  the  ground,  and  causes  the  plant  to  wilt  and 
die.  This  is  the  larva  of  a  small,  grayish  snout  beetle, 
called  the  potato-stalk  weevil,  the  females  of  which  de- 
posit their  eggs,  singly,  in  a  slit  made  for  the  purpose 

in  the  stem,  slightly 
above  the  soil  surface. 
In  a  few  days  the  Qgg 
hatches  into  a  little 
grub  that  burrows 
down  the  center  of  the 
stem  toward  the  root. 
FIG.  119.  POTATO-STALK  WEEVIL.      A  fcw  wccks  latcr,  still 

«,  larva;   6,  pupa;  c,  beetle.    Magnified.  ^,|^|^-^^     ^^^     g^^jj^    ^^^ 

slightly  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  the  larva  pu- 
pates, and  late  in  summer  or  early  in  autumn  it  emerges 
as  an  adult  weevil.  This  weevil  passes  the  winter  under 
whatever  protective  covering  it  may  find,  and  the  follow- 
ing season  starts  another  generation  by  depositing  its 
eggs  in  the  potato  stalks. 

The  injuries  ol  this  insect  are  sometimes  quite  se- 
vere. In  Iowa,  during  the  season  of  1890,  Professor 
C.   P.  Gillette  estimated  that  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 

228 


THE  COLORADO  POTATO  BEETLE         229 

the  potato  plants  were  infested  by  it.     It  is  a  widely 
distributed  species. 

Remedies. — According  to  Professor  Gillette,  "the 
only  remedy  at  present  known  is  to  pull  the  vines  as 
soon  as  they  are  found  wilting  and  burn  them.  If  the 
tops  are  left  until  it  is  time  to  dig  the  potatoes  many  of 
the  beetles  will  have  matured  and  escaped,  and  these 
will  live  over  winter  and  lay  eggs  for  another  brood." 
But  even  late  pulling  and  burning  will  destroy  many  of 
the  pests,  and  in  regions  where  this  insect  is  known  to 
be  at  work,  the  vines  should  be  burned  when  pulled  up 
in  harvesting  the  crop. 

INJURING   THE    LEAVES 

The  Colorado   Potato   Beetle 

Doryphora  decemlweata 

This  insect  originally  lived  upon  a  wild  variety  of 
Solanum  (the  genus  to  which  the  cultivated  potato  be- 
longs) in  the  West,  near  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. It  was  not  known  as  an  injurious  species  until 
about  1860,  when  it  attacked  potatoes  in  the  gardens  of 
settlers  in  Kansas  and  neighboring  States,  and  thereafter 
gradually  spread  eastward  until  it  finally  reached  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  was  carried  across  to  Europe,  becom- 
ing extremely  destructive  wiierever  it  appeared. 

The  adult  Colorado  potato  beetle  (Fig.  120,  d)  is 
too  familiar  to  American  gardeners  to  need  description 
here.  Its  orange-colored  eggs  {a)  are  deposited  in 
masses,  varying  in  number  from  a  dozen  to  fifty  or  more, 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  potato  leaf,  and  occasionally 
also  upon  the  leaves  of  grass,  smartweed,  or  other  plants 
in  the  potato  field.  They  hatch  about  a  week  later  into 
peculiar  little  grubs  {h)  that  feed  upon  the  foliage  a  few 
weeks.  They  then  descend  to  the  ground,  where  just 
beneath  the  isoil  surface,  or  under  rubbish  above  it,  they 


230 


INSECTS   Al^D   li^SECTICIDES 


change  to  pupae  (c).  About  ten  days  later  they  emerge 
as  perfect  beetles.  There  are  from  two  to  four  annual 
broods,  the  number  varying  with  the  latitude,  and  the 
insect  hibernates  in  the  beetle  state. 

Like  most  other  insects,  the  Colorado  potato  beetle 
fluctuates  greatly  in  numbers  and  destructiyeness.  In 
any  given  locality  it  will  be  very  destructive  for  a  period 


Fig.  120.    COLORADO  POTATO  BEETLE,    a,  a,  eggs;  b,  b,  larvae;  c,  pupa; 
cl,  d,  beetles;  e,  wing  of  beetle,  magnified. 

of  years,  and  then  there  may  be  several  seasons  when  its 
injuries  will  hardly  be  noticed.  This  oscillation  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  various  natural  enemies  of  the  insect. 

Remedies. — The  standard  remedy  for  this  pest  is 
that  of  spraying  or  dusting  with  some  form  of  arsenic, 
such  as  London  purple,  Paris  green,  slug  shot,  etc. 
All  of  these  take  effect  both  upon  the  larvae  and  beetles. 
London  purple  or  Paris  green  may  be  dusted  or  sprayed 
on  with  a  perforated  can  or  a  powder  gun,  or  spraying 
machine.  If  used  as  a  powder,  the  poison  may  well  be 
diluted'  with   several   times   its  bulk  of  plaster,  finely 


THE   STRIPED   BLISTER   BEETLE  231 

sifted  ashes,  or  flour.  In  spraying  use  six  or  seven 
ounces  of  London  purple  or  Paris  green  to  fifty  gallons 
of  water.  For  this  purpose  London  purple  seems  pre- 
ferable on  account  of  its  cheapness  and  finely  powdered 
condition.  The  application  should  be  made  as  soon  as 
the  beetles  appear,  in  order  to  kill  off  the  first  brood, 
and  it  must  be  repeated  as  often  during  the  season  as  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  j)ests  in  check.  It  is  better  to  use 
the  arsenite  and  Bordeaux  mixture  combination,  thus 
preventing  both  beetles  and  blight.  By  many  growers 
hand  picking  of  the  beetles  and  eggs,  especially  early  in 
the  season,  is  resorted  to  instead  of  the  use  of  poisons. 
This  method  is  effective  if  thoroughly  carried  out. 

The  Striped    Blister   Beetle 

Epicauta  vittata 

This  insect  is  sometimes  called  the  old-fashioned 
potato  beetle,  because  it  was  known  as  the  '*  potato 
beetle  "  before  the  introduction  of  the  more  modern,  as 
well  as  more  destructive,  Colorado  spe- 
cies. It  is  a  foe  to  the  farmer  only  in  its 
adult  condition,  for  as  a  larva  it  feeds 
upon  the  eggs  of  various  grasshoppers, 
forming  one  of  the  most  efficient  nat- 
ural checks  upon  the  increase  of  these 
pests.  The  adult  blister  beetle  (Fig.  121) 
is  a  slender-bodied,  rather  long-legged  s^mpedblis- 
insect,  measuring  from  one-half  to  three-  ter  beetle. 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  alternate  stripes  of 
black  and  yellowish-brown  upon  the  back.  It  feeds  vo- 
raciously on  the  leaves  of  potatoes  and  various  other  veg- 
etables. These  beetles  are  generally  gregarious,  feeding 
in  good-sized  flocks,  and  when  disturbed  take  to  flight 
readily.  The  females  deposit  their  small  eggs  in  masses 
of  a  hundred  or  more,  in  the  soil  just  below  the  surface. 


232  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

In  about  ten  days  the  eggs  hatch  into  curious  little  larva? 
that  burrow  through  the  earth  in  search  of  the  eggs  of 
grasshopi^ers.  A  large  proportion  of  them  probably  per- 
ish because  they  can  find  none,  but  those  that  are  suc- 
cessful feed  upon  the  eggs  and  go  through  a  curious 
series  of  changes,  which  have  been  admirably  described 
by  Dr.  Riley,  finally  going  into  the  pupal  state  and 
emerging  later  on  as  beetles.  In  the  South  there  are 
apparently  two  broods  each  season.  On  account  of  the 
dependence  of  the  larvae  upon  grasshopper  eggs,  the 
beetles  are  much  more  likely  to  be  destructively  numer- 
ous during  seasons  following  those  in  which  grasshoppers 
have  been  abundant. 

There  are  several  other  species  of  blister  beetles 
with  habits  similar  to  this  one,  that  are  frequently  found 
upon  potatoes.  The  commonest  is  probably  the  black 
blister  beetle  {Epicauia  pennsylvanica). 

Remedies. — It  is  sometimes  stated  that  these  in- 
sects are  not  destroyed  by  eating  Paris  green,  but  this  is 
probably  a  mistake.  The  application  of  this  substance, 
however,  seems  often  to  be  of  no  avail,  probably  either 
because  it  does  not  act  immediately  upon  the  beetles,  or 
else  because  they  continue  to  invade  the  field  from  tlie 
outside.  A  few  years  ago  a  favorite  method  of  destroy- 
ing them  was  to  drive  the  flocks  of  beetles  upon  loose 
hay  or  straw  spread  upon  the  ground  near  where  they 
are  at  work,  and  then  burn  the  hay,  lighting  it  at  several 
different  places,  so  that  it  will  burn  rapidly.  Hand 
picking  can  often  be  resorted  to  advantageously.  It  is 
doubtful  policy,  however,  to  destroy  these  insects  except 
when  they  threaten  to  do  serious  damage,  because  of  the 
grasshopper-egg-feeding  habits  of  the  larvae. 


THE    IMBRICATED   SNOUT   BEETLE  233 

The   Imbricated   Snout   Beetle 

EpiccBvus  imbricatus 

This  is  a  small  beetle  about  half  an  inch  long,  sil- 
very white  in  general  color,  with  various  darker  mark- 
ings upon  its  back.  It  feeds  upon  a  great  variety  of 
vegetation,  from  the  twigs  and  fruit  of  apple,  cherry 
and  gooseberry  to  the  leaves  and  stems  of  onion,  radish, 
melon,  beans,  beets,  corn  and  potato.  It  often  does 
very  serious  injury  in  the  vegetable  garden,  but  not- 
jvithstanding  its  commonness  and  destructiveness,  its 
life  history  as  yet  has  not  been  traced.  Professor  Forbes 
has  found  the  eggs  deposited  between  pear  leaves  fas- 
tened together,  and  Dr.  Eiley  has  conjectured  that  the 
larvae  will  be  found  to  feed  externally  on  the  roots  of 
one  or  more  of  the  food  plants  of  the  beetle.  When 
alarmed  the  beetles  feign  death,  resembling  in  this 
respect  the  plum  curculio,  and  fall  to  the  ground. 

Remedies. — When  these  insects  infest  plants  to 
which  Paris  green  or  London  purple  can  safely  be  ap- 
plied, the  potato  for  example,  they  may  easily  be  de- 
stroyed by  such  applications. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  CELERY,  PARSNIP 
AND  CARROT 


INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Celery  Caterpillar 

Papilio  asterias 

The  life  history  of  this  insect  has  been  discussed  at 
some  length  in  the  Introduction  (pages  5-7)  in  connec- 
tion with  Plate  I,  where  its  different  stages  are  illus- 
trated. The  larvae  are  handsome  and  quite  conspicuous, 
and  feed  upon  the  foliage  of  the  various  members  of  the 
parsley  family,  including  the  carrot,  celery,  parsnip, 
etc.,  sometimes  doing  considerable  injury  when  left  un- 
molested. The  caterpillars  often  become  the  victims  of 
certain  parasitic  insects,  but  it  is  said  that  neither  birds 
nor  domestic  fowls  will  eat  them,  probably  because  of 
the  disagreeable  odor  emitted  from  the  peculiar  yellow 
horns  situated  on  the  body,  just  behind  the  head.  The 
adult  butterfly  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  as  well  as 
one  of  the  commonest  of  its  family. 

Remedies. — When  young  these  caterpillars  may 
be  destroyed  by  dusting  them  with  insect  powder  or 
buhach.  Ordinarily,  however,  they  are  not  so  abundant 
but  that  a  little  hand  picking  will  readily  hold  them  in 
check. 


334 


INSECTS  AFFECTING   THE  SQUASH, 
MELON    AND    CUCUMBER 


INJURING  THE   ROOTS 

The  Squash=vine   Borer 

Melittia   ceto 

The  roots  and  stems  of  cucurbitaceous  plants  are 
frequently  infested  with  a  whitish  larva  that  feeds  upon 
the  inner  substance,  often  doing  so  serious  a  damage  as 
to  cause  the  plant  to  wilt  and  die.  The  parent  of  this 
squash-vine  borer  is  one  of  the  Aegerian  moths.  It  is  a 
handsome  insect  (Fig.  122),  about  half  an  inch  long, 
with  an  orange-colored  body  ornamented  by  several 
black  spots  upon  the  back,  and  having  olive-brown  front 
wings  and  transparent  hind  ones.  Eggs  are  deposited 
by  this  moth  from  the  tirst  of  June  until  the  middle  of 
July,  upon  the  stems  of  the  young  plants,  often  near  the 
roots,  and  the  larvae  resulting  burrow  into  the  center 
and  feed  upon  the  succulent  interior.  They  remain 
here  several  weeks,  gradually  increasing  in  size.  Toward 
the  end  of  summer  they  become  full-grown  {c),  when 
they  measure  about  an  inch  in  length,  and  are  whitish 
with  brown  heads.  They  now  leave  the  stem  or  root, 
and  going  into  the  ground  an  inch  or  two  form  cocoons 
by  fastening  particles  of  soil  together  with  gummy  silk. 
They  then  change  to  pupae,  and  remain  thus  until  the 
following  season,  when  they  emerge  as  moths.  Occa- 
sionally in  the  North  a  moth  emerges  the  same  season, 
while  in  the  South  the  insect  appears  to  be  normally 
two-brooded. 

235 


236 


i:j^sects  and  iksecticides 


Remedies. — Professor  J.  B.  Smitli,  who  has  stud- 
ied this  insect  carefully,  makes  substantially  the  follow- 
ing recommendations,  in  growing  squashes  for  market : 

(1)  Fertilize  heavily  and  evenly ;  not  in  the  hills  alone. 

(2)  As  early  as  may  be  plant  summer  squashes  on  the 
land  to  induce  the  moths  to  deposit  eggs  in  them.     A 


FIG.  122.    SQUASH-VINE  BORER,     a,  6,  moth,  wings  expanded  and  at 
rest;  c,  larva,  from  side  and  from  above;  f7,  cocoon,  from  which 
pnpa  skin  is  extended.    Natural  size. 

few  rows  in  the  field  are  sufficient,  unless  it  is  desired  to 
produce  a  market  crop.  (3)  Plant  the  Hubbards,  mar- 
rowfats or  other  main  crop  as  late  as  advisable  without 
risking  the  crop,  making  the  hills  between  those  of  the 
early  varieties.  (4)  Keep  a  lookout  for  the  moths,  and 
when  they  are  noticed,  go  over  the  field  every  evening 
during  the  twilight  and  kill  all  that  are  found  sitting  on 
the  leaves.  A  little  practice  will  enable  one  to  cover 
three  rows  at  one  time  without  missing  a  specimen,  and 
in  less  than  an  hour  a  large  field  can  be  cleared  of  moths. 
(5)  When  the  late  varieties  need  the  ground,  the  crook- 
necks  will  have  made  at  least  a  partial  crop,  even  if 


THE  CUCUMBER  FLEA  BEETLE  237 

badly  infested  by  borers,  and  the  nnes  can  be  taken  out 
and  renioved,  leaving  the  ground  to  the  later  varieties. 
This  should  be  done  carefully,  so  that  all  the  borers  re- 
main in  the  vines,  and  the  latter  should  be  thoroughly 
destroyed  in  some  way  that  will  kill  all  the  contained 
larvae.  (6)  As  soon  as  the  late  vines  begin  to  run  well, 
they  should  be  covered  at  the  fourth  joint,  or  even  be- 
yond it,  and  the  ground  should  be  kept  in  such  condi- 
tion that  it  can  readily  send  down  suckers  from  all  the 
joints.  This  will  enable  it  to  resist  injury  and  to  ripen 
fruit  even  if  it  becomes  infested  by  a  few  belated  borers ; 
hut  there  must  be  plant  food  e^iough  ivhere  these  joint 
roots  are  sent  cloiun,  for  that  in  the  hill  may  he  cut  off. 
(7)  When  the  crop  is  made,  the  vines  should  be  at  once 
removed  and  destroyed,  as  were  those  of  the  summer 
squashes,  so  as  to  prevent  the  maturing  of  any  borers 
then  in  them. 

INJURING  THE  LEAVES 

The  Cucumber   Flea=beetle 

Crepidodera  ciicumeris 

This  is  a  small,  blackish,  punctate  beetle  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  long,  with  yellowish  antennae  and 
legs,  that  appears  early  in  spring,  and  as  soon  as  the 
squash  or  cucumber  plants  are  up,  attacks  them,  eating 
off  small,  round  patches  of  parenchyma  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaves.  Like  all  flea-beetles,  they  are  quite 
active,  hopping  readily  when  disturbed.  The  larvae  are 
said  to  mine  the  leaves.  The  insect  does  not  confine  it- 
self to  squashes  and  cucumbers,  but  feeds  upon  a  great 
variety  of  other  plants. 

Remedies. — Powdered  tobacco  has  been  found  to 
be  the  best  preventive  of  the  injuries  of  flea-beetles. 
When  used  against  the  striped  cucumber  beetle,  it  will 
take  effect  upon  the  present  pest  as  well. 


238  INSECTS  AND  INSECTICIDES 

The   Squash    Bug 

A^iasa  tristis 

The  squasli  bug  is  too  familiar  to  gardeners  to  need 
a  detailed  description  here.  It  is  a  rusty-black,  flattened 
bug,  about  half  an  inch  long,  with  the  underside  ochre- 
yellow,  and  has  a  very  repulsive  ^"^buggy "  odor.  This 
insect  winters  over  as  an  adult,  beneath  boards,  logs, 
leaves,  or  other  protective  covering,  and  appears  in  the 
squash  patch  late  in  spring  or  early  in  summer.  The 
females  then  deposit  their  brownish-yellow, 
spherical  eggs  on  the  undersides  of  the 
leaves  in  patches  varying  from  three  or  four 
to  a  score  or  more.  In  a  few  days  the 
young  bugs,  or  nymphs,  hatch,  and  insert 
their  pointed  beaks  into  the  leaf  and  suck 
ont  the  sap.  At  first  they  are  more  or  less 
FIG.  123.  gregarious,  the  bugs  from  a  single  lot  of 
SQUASH  BUG.  ^ggg  feeding  together,  but  as  they  grow 
older  they  gradually  disperse  over  the  plants,  casting 
their  skins  occasionally  during  their  development. 
Like  all  true  bugs,  the  transformations  of  this  species 
are  incomplete.  The  young  bear  a  general  resemblance 
to  the  adults,  and  the  insect  remains  active  in  the  stage 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  pupa.  Leaves  attacked  by 
the  bugs  become  sickly  and  yellow,  and  if  the  pests  are 
numerous  the  whole  i3lant  may  finally  be  killed. 

Remedies. — Hand  picking  appears  to  be  the  most 
practicable  remedy  that  has  yet  been  tried.  This  should 
be  done  during  the  cooler  hours  of  the  day,  when  the 
bugs  are  sluggish.  The  young  may  also  be  destroyed  by 
spraying  with  kerosene  emulsion.  Professor  Cook  records 
good  success  in  placing  pieces  of  boards  among  the  plants, 
under  which  the  bugs  collect  at  night,  and  where  they 
may  easily  be  found  and  destroyed.     Mr.  Benjamin  Ware 


THE   STKIP2D   CUCUMBER   BEETLE 


239 


reports  good  results  from  setting  shingles  in  the  soil  at 
an  angle  of  45°.  The  bugs  collect  under  these  and  are 
easily  destroyed. 

The  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle 

Diabrotica  vittata 

This  is  the  small,  yellow  beetle  (Fig.  124,  b)  with 
black  stripes  on  its  back,  that  so  commonly  attacks 
squashes,  cucumbers,  melons,  and  other  cucurbitaceous 
plants,  soon  after  they 
come  up  in  the  spring. 
It  feeds  upon  the  leaves 
and  stems,  and  in 
many  parts  of  the 
country  is  so  destruc- 
tive that  these  plants 
cannot  be  grown  un- 
less preventive  meas- 
ures are  taken  to  guard 
against  'its  injuries. 
The  female  beetles  de- 
posit eggs  in  the  soil 
about  the*  stems  of  the 
plants,  and  the  larvae 
resulting  feed  upon 
the  roots.  They  reach  fig.  124.  cucumber  beetle.  «,  larva;  6, 
maturity  in   a  couple  ^^^^^^-  ^^8"^^^^. 

of  months,  having  pupated  within  the  soil.  The  larvae 
(Fig.  124,  a)  are  whitish,  cylindrical  worms,  not  quite 
half  an  inch  long,  with  three  pairs  of  legs  at  the  front 
of  the  body,  and  one  pro-leg  at  the  posterior  extremity. 
The  insect  winters  over  in  the  beetle  state,  under  leaves, 
logs,  and  rubbish  of  various  kinds. 

The  beetles  usually  appear  suddenly,  often  coming 
to  the  squash  or  melon  field  in  great  numbers  within  a 


240  INSECTS   AKD    INSECTICIDES 

few  hours.     Consequently  a  watch  must  be  kept  to  pre- 
vent their  doing  damage  before  discovered. 

Remedies. — There  are  probably  few  injurious  in- 
sects for  which  more  remedies  and  preventives  have 
been  suggested  than  for  this.  But  a  large  proportion  of 
these  methods  are  Avorthless.  Good  success  has  been 
obtained  by  applying  liberal  quantities  of  refuse  tobacco 
powder  to   the   hills.      A  shovelful   thrown   upon   the 

hills  has  been  found  largely  to 
prevent  the  damage.  The  ap- 
plication should  be  repeated 
occasionally,  when  wind  and 
rain  have  removed  the  powder 
from  the  plants.  The  tobacco 
acts  not  only  as  a  repellent 
VINE  PROTECTOR,  to  thc  bectlcs,  but  also  as  a 
mulch  and  fertilizer  to  the  plants.  Similar,  though  less 
liberal,  applications  of  phosphates,  bone  dust,  and  other 
commercial  fertilizers,  are  also  recommended  by  some 
authorities. 

For  the  kitchen  garden  the  most  satisfactory  method 
is  that  of  protecting  the  plants  by  some  form  of  gauze 
netting.  A  simple  method  of  doing  this  is  illustrated  at 
Fig.  125.  The  ends  of  half  a  barrel  hoop  are  placed  in 
the  earth  at  the  sides  of  the  hill,  and  a  square  strip  of 
thin  plant  cloth  or  cheese  cloth  is  then  laid  over  it,  the 
cloth  being  drawn' taut,  and  the  edges  covered  with  loose 
earth.  This  excludes  the  beetles,  and  at  the  same  time 
permits  access  of  air,  moisture,  and  sunshine.  Squash 
plants  are  able  to  grow  until  they  get  four  or  five  leaves, 
and  cucumbers  and  melons  even  more,  before  they  are 
crippled  by  contact  with  the  cloth.  Wire  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  half  barrel  hooj^.  A  single  piece  may  be 
used,  or  two  may  be  crossed  like  the  center  arch  of  a 
croquet  ground,  as  represented  at  Fig.  126.  Good  results 
are  also  obtained  by  simply  placing  the  cloth  over  the 


THE   TWELVE   SPOTTED    CUCUMBER    BEETLE         241 

plants  without  any  support,  and  covering  the  edges  as 
described.  By  loosening  the  cloth  occasionally,  the  plant 
will  lift  it,  and  get  several  leaves  before  it  need  be 
removed.  A  modification  of  this  method,  which  has 
been  successfully  used,  consists  of  two  end  boards  one- 
half  inch  thick,  about  fifteen  inches  long  by  six  or  eight 
inches  wide.  On  the  middle  of  each  of  the  these  is  nailed 
a  piece  of  pointed  lath  at  right  angles  to  the  long  way  of 
the  board.  The  lower  end  of  each  lath  projects  below 
the  edge  of  the  board,  and  is 
stuck  in  the  ground  a  few 
inches.  Before  the  lath  are  put 
on,  the  end  pieces  are  connected 
with  each  other  by  a  piece  of  "^^krf/fzL  c'k^SJ 
plant  cloth  about  16x27  inches,  fig.  120.  vine  pkotector. 
the  ends  being  tacked  to  the  top  and  sides  of  the  boards. 
This  protector  has  many  advantages.  It  can  be  stored 
in  very  little  space.  When  it  is  desired  to  cultivate  the 
hills,  it  is  only  necessary  to  pull  up  one  end,  stir  the 
earth,  and  put  the  end  back  in  position. 

Gauze-covered  wooden  frames  are  sometimes  recom- 
mended to  prevent  the  injuries  of  this  insect,  but  they 
are  objectionable  because  they  exclude  a  great  deal  of  air 
and  sunshine,  causing  the  plants  to  grow  tall  and  slen- 
der, rather  than  short  and  stocky. 

The    Twelve=spotted    Cucumber    Beetle 

Diahrotica  I'^-jninctata 
This  insect  is  similar  in  appearance  and  habits  to 
the  one  treated  of  last,  the  adult  having  twelve  black 
spots  upon  a  yellow  background,  instead  of  being  striped. 
The  larva  of  this  species  bores  the  roots  of  corn  and 
other  plants.  The  remedial  measures  recommended 
above  apply  equally  well  to  this  insect.  Its  life  history 
Avill  be  found  more  fully  discussed  on  a  later  page,  where 
it  is  treated  of  as  the  Southern  corn-root  worm. 
16 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    THE    BEAN    AND 

PEA 


INJURING  THE   SEED 

The   Bean   Weevil 

Bruchus  oMectus 


One  often  finds  beans  with  numbers  of  excavations 
in  them,  like  those  shown  at  Fig.  127,  h.  Such  beans 
are  affected  by  the  bean  weevil — an  insect  that  is  widely 
distributed  over  the  United  States,  and  often  does  very 
serious  damage. 

The  adult  weevil  is  represented  natural  size  in  the 
upper  middle  portion  of  Fig.  127,  and  enlarged  at  a  of 
the  same  figure.  It  is  a  small, 
brownish  insect  that  very  much 
resembles  the  nearly  related  pea 
weevil.  The  eggs  are  deposited 
inside  the  pod,  the  mother 
beetle  gnawing  a  narrow  slit 
through  the  suture  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  pod  and   jDushing 

her     long     ovipositor     through  tie,  magnified 

this  opening  to  lay  a  cluster  of  eggs  inside.  The  beetle 
normally  oviposits  in  green  pods  of  good  size.  The  eggs 
hatch  in  about  a  fortnight  into  larvae  which  feed  upon 
the  beans  for  three  or  four  weeks,  when  they  pupate, 
and  about  ten  days  later  emerge  as  adult  beetles.  These 
insects  are  also  able  to  develop  in  dried  beans,  the  vari- 
ous periods  lasting  longer  in  winter  than  in  summer. 

242 


BEAN  WEEVIL,    a,  bee- 
h,  infested  bean. 


THE    PEA    WEEVIL  243 

Tlie  larvae  gnaw  out  cells  in  the  beans,  several  often  oc- 
curring in  a  single  bean,  and  are  said  at  the  time  of  pu- 
pation to  leave  the  cells  in  which  they  have  developed 
and  to  excavate  another  to  pupate  in.  The  adult  beetles 
have  been  observed  to  feed  upon  the  parenchyma  of  the 
growing  i^lant. 

Remedies. — Beans  infested  by  these  pests  should 
be  inclosed  in  tight  vessels,  into  which  a  little  bisul23hide 
of  carbon,  benzine,  or  gasoline  has  been  placed.  The 
fumes  of  these  volatile  substances  will  destroy  the 
beetles.  Of  course  care  must  be  taken  that  no  particle 
of  fire  comes  in  the  vicinity  of  the  treatment.  Late 
planting  of  the  crop  has  been  found  a  good  way  to  pre- 
vent injury,  by  an  extensive  Illinois  farmer  living  in  the 
latitude  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  who  for  a  number  of 
years  has  planted  his  field  beans  from  June  20th  to 
July  10th,  with  good  results.  If  the  beans,  as  soon  as 
ripe,  are  heated  to  145°  Fahrenheit,  the  partially  grown 
larvae  will  be  destroyed  without  injury  to  the  germinat- 
ing qualities  of  the  seed.  This  will  prevent  much  of 
the  damage  that  would  be  done  were  the  larv*  left  to 
complete  their  growth. 


The  Pea  Weevil 

Bruclius  pisi 

As  already  stated,  this  insect  is  very  similar  to  the 
bean  weevil  in  life  history  and  habits.  The  adult  beetle 
deposits  its  yellow  eggs  on  the  outside  of  the  young  pods 
early  in  summer.  On  hatching,  a  few  days  later,  the 
larv^  bore  through  the  j^ods  into  the  peas,  which  they 
enter  and  eat  out  the  substance,  leaving  the  radicle  or 
germ  untouched.  On  this  account  "'buggy  peas"  will 
germinate,  but  as  the  young  plants  are  deprived  of  the 
proper  nourishment  they  make  a  less  healthy  growth 


244  lifSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

than  do  those  resulting  from  uninjured  peas.  When 
full-grown  the  larva  eats  a  hole  on  one  side  of  the  pea, 
leaving  only  the  thin,  outer  covering,  before  entering 
the  pupal  state.     Some  time  afterwards  the  insect  again 

changes  to  the  perfect  beetle, 
a  portion  of  which  emerge 
the  same  season,  but  most  of 
them  remain  in  the  peas 
until  the  following  spring. 
Remedies. — Themeas- 
g  I    WM^  li       ures  mentioned  as  remedies 

for  the  bean  weevil  are  equally 
FIG.  128.  PEA  WEEVIL,    a,  bee^e,  applicable  to  this  pest.     That 

magnified;  ^  infested  pea.         of   heating    the   pcaS    to    145° 

Fahrenheit  as  soon  as  gathered,  seems  especially  advis- 
able in  the  case  of  the  pea  weevil,  for  at  the  time  of 
ripening  a  large  proportion  of  the  weevil  larvae  are  only 
partially  grown. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  CABBAGE 


INJURING  THE  ROOTS 

The  Cabbage=root  Maggot 

Pliorhia  hrassicce 

The  cabbage-root  maggot  is  one  of  the  most  vexa- 
tious enemies  of  the  gardener.  The  adult  (Fig.  129,  c) 
is  a  small,  two-winged  fly,  somewhat  like  the  common 


FIG.  129.    CABBAGE  MAGGOT,    a,  larva ;  h,  pu j)arium ;  c,  fly. 

house  fly  in  general  apjDearance,  which  appears  in  the 
cabbage  field  soon  after  the  plants  are  set  out,  and  de- 
posits its  eggs  about  the  stems  at  the  soil  surface.  The 
little,  whitish  maggots  soon  hatch,  and  work  their  w^ay 
downward  to  the  roots,  which  they  attack,  feeding  upon 
the  outer  surface  and  thus  making  grooves,  or  boring 
into  the  interior  and  hollowing  out  cavities.  They 
sometimes  cause  the  roots  to  thicken  up  and  become 
malformed,  producing  an  effect  similar  to  that  of  the 
fungus  causing  the  disease  known  as  **club  roofc."  In 
two  or  three  weeks  the  maggots  become  full-fed  («),  and 

245 


246 


IJq^SECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


they  change  to  the  pupal  state  within  hard  brown  pii- 
paria  (b),  to  emerge  fifteen  or  twenty  clays  afterward  as 
adult  flies.  There  are  probably  two  or  three  broods 
each  season,  and  the  insect  apparently  hibernates  in 
each  of  its  three  later  stages.  These  insects  infest  tur- 
nips, rutabagas  and  radishes,  as  well  as  the  cabbage,  and 
also  breed  in  wild  cruciferous  plants. 

Remedies. — A  large  number  of  unsatisfactory  rem- 
edies have  been  proposed  for  this  insect.     In  some  cases 


FIG.  130.     CABBAGE  ROOTS  INJURED    BY  MAGGOTS. 

immunity  from  attack  may  be  had  by  planting  the  crop 
each  year  a  considerable  distance  from  where  it  was  be- 
fore, although  the  fact  that  the  insect  breeds  in  wild 
cruciferous  plants  sometimes  causes  the  insects  to  attack 
cabbages  on  land  not  previously  planted  to  this  crop. 
In  special  cases  where  only  a  few  cabbages  or  radishes 
are  to  be  raised,  the  flies  can  be  kept  out  by  growing  in 
cold  frames  covered  with  cheese  cloth  or  fine  netting. 


THE   CABBAGE    ROOT   MAGGOT 


247 


The  most  satisfactory  j)reventive  method  that  has 
been  used  on  a  large  scale  is  that  of  protecting  the 
plants  by  tarred  paper  (one-ply  tarred  felt)  cards,  in  a 
way  similar  to  that  shown  in  a,  Fig.  131.  The  method 
of  making  and  applying  these  cards  is  described  by  Pro- 
fessor Goff  as  follows  :  '^The  cards  are  cut  in  a  hexag- 
onal form,  in  order  to  better  economize  the  material, 
and  a  thinner  grade  of  tarred  paper  than  the  ordinary 


FIG.  131.     TAKKED    PAPER    CARDS    ON    BASE  OF    PLANTS.       a,    COrrectly 

put  on  ;  h,  carelessly  put  on. 


roofing  felt  is  nsed,  as  it  is  not  only  cheaper,  but  being 
more  flexible,  the  cards  made  from  it  are  more  readily 
placed  about  the  plant  without  being  torn. 

"The  blade  of  the  tool,  which  should  be  made  by 
an  expert  blacksmith,  is  formed  from  a  band  of  steel, 
bent  in  the  form  of  a  half  hexagon,  and  then  taking  an 
acute  angle,  reaches  nearly  to  the  center,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  132.  The  part  making  the  star-shaped  cut  is 
formed  from  a  separate  piece  of  steel,  so  attached  to  the 


248  INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

handle  as  to  make  a  close  joint  with  the  blade.  The 
latter  is  beveled  from  the  outside  all  around,  so  that  by 
removing  the  part  making  the  star-shaped  cut,  the  edge 
may  be  ground  on  a  grindstone.  It  is  important  that 
the  angles  in  the  blade  be  made  perfect  and  that  its 
outline  represents  an  exact  half  hexagon. 

'*^To  use  the  tool,  place  the  tarred  paper  on  the  end 
of  a  section  of  a  log  or  piece  of  timber  and  first  cut  the 
lower  edge  into  notches,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  132,  using 
only  one  angle  of  the  tool,  Tlien  commence  at  the  left 
side,  place  the  blade  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines, 
and  strike  at  the  end  of  the  handle  with  a  light  mallet, 
and  a  complete  card  is  made.  Continue  in  this  manner 
across  the  paper.  The  first  cut  of  every  alternate  course 
will  make  an  imperfect  card,  and  the  last  cut  in  any 
course  may  be  imperfect,  but  the  other  cuts  will  make 
perfect  cards  if  the  tool  is  correctly  made  and  properly 
used.* 

''The  cards  should  be  placed  about  the  plants  at 
the  time  of  transplanting.  To  place  the  card  bend  it 
slightly,  to  open  the  slit,  then  slip  it  on  to  the  center, 
the  stem  entering  the  slit,  after  which  spread  the  card 
out  flat,  and  press  the  points  formed  by  the  star-shaped 
cut  snugly  around  the  stem."  At  a,  in  Fig.  131,  is 
shown  a  card  properly  applied  to  the  stem  of  a  geranium  ; 
h  shows  a  card  carelessly  put  on. 

Another  way  of  preventing  the  injuries  of  the  cab- 
bage-root maggot  is  by  the  use  of  a  carbolic  acid  emulsion. 
Mr.  Slingerland  recommends  that  it  be  made  by  the 
following  formula:  ''One  pound  of  hard  soap  or  one 
quart  of  soft  soap  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water, 
into  which  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid  is  then  poured 
and  the  whole  mass  agitated  into  an  emulsion,  which 


*It  is  stated  that  these  cuttinej  tools  can  be  bought  of  P.  J.  Diepold, 
Madison,  Wis.,  for  $2.50  each. 


THE   CABBAGE   ROOT   MAGGOT 


249 


will  remain  in  this  condition  for  a  long  time.  In  treat- 
ing the  plants,  take  one  part  of  this  standard  emulsion 
and  dilute  it  with  thirty  equal  parts  of  water;  it  prob- 
ably can  be  used  stronger  without  injury  to  the  plants. 
If  the  emulsion  is  cold  and  semi-solid  use  several  parts 


FIG.  132.  rt,  outUne  of  paper  card,  two-thirds  natural  size;  6,  diagram 
showing  how  tool  is  used ;  dotted  line  shows  position  of  edge  of 
tool;  c,  tool  for  cutting  cards  (reduced), 

of  warm  water  at  first.  Begin  the  treatment  early,  a  day 
or  two  after  the  plants  are  up,  or  in  the  case  of  cabbages 
and  cauliflowers,  the  next  day  after  they  are  set  in  the 
field,  and  repeat  it  once  each  week  or  ten  days  until  about 


250  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

May  20  in  New  York.  While  we  Jiave  little  faith  in  the 
preyentiye  effects  of  the  early  treatments,  we  do  believe 
that  the  emulsion  will  then  kill  many  of  the  eggs  and 
recently  hatched  maggots.  If  it  could  be  applied  with 
some  force  through  a  syringe  or  force  pump,  it  might 
not  be  necessary  to  go  to  this  trouble  of  first  removing 
some  of  the  earth  from  about  the  plants.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  its  success  will  depend  on  the  eggs  or 
maggots  being  hit  with  it.  None  of  the  cabbages  in  our 
experiment  were  injured  in  the  least  by  an  application 
containing  nearly  twice  as  much  of  the  acid,  and  there 
is  but  little  danger  of  its  injuring  the  tenderest  foliage 
of  radishes,  turnips  or  onions;  if  any  injury  manifests 
itself  on  these  crops,  dilute  the  emulsion  with  forty  or 
fifty  or  more  parts  of  water,  instead  of  thirty.  A  kuaji- 
sack  or  a  wheelbarrow  sprayer  would  prove  a  very  useful 
instrument  in  applying  the  emulsion  on  a  large  scale." 

The  use  of  carbon  bisulphide,  aj^plied  with  a  spe- 
cially devised  injector,  has  also  given  good  results.  For  an 
account  of  this  and  other  remedial  methods  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Bulletin  78  of  the  Cornell  University  Experi- 
ment Station.  In  some  localities  the  growers  search 
regularly  about  the  bases  of  the  stems  for  the  bunches  of 
whitish  eggs,  and  claim  it  to  be  the  best  method  of 
checking  the  injuries  of  the  pest. 

INJURING  THE  LEAVES 

The  Imported  Cabbage   Worm 

Pier  is  rapm 

This  insect  was  imported  into  America  from  Europe 
about  1857,  since  when  it  has  become  exceedingly  destruc- 
tive over  a  large  portion  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 
The  adult  is  a  common  white  butterfly,  the  female  of 
which  has  two  black  spots  upon  each  of  the  front  wings 
(Fig.  133,  c),  while  the  male  (Fig.   134)  has  but  one. 


THE  IMPORTED  CABBAGE  WORM 


251 


The  former  deposits,  singly  or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three 
each,  small,  fusiform,  yellowish  eggs  upon  the  cabbage 
leaves,  which  soon  hatch  into  little,  green  larvae  that  feed 
upon  the  substance  of  the  foliage.  In  about  two  weeks 
they  become  full-grown  (Fig.  133,  a),  when  they  gener- 
ally leave  the  cabbage  plants,  and,  finding  some  suitable 
shelter — beneath  a  board  or  under  the  coping  of  a  fence 
— change  to  chrysalids  (Fig.  133,  d).  They  remain  in 
this  condition  about  ten  days,  when  they  emerge  as  but- 


FiG.  133.    Imported  CABBAGE  Worm  :    . 
butterfly. 


larva;  6,  chrysalis;  c, female 


terflies,  to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood  of  worms.  The 
winter  is  passed  in  the  chrysalis  state.  There  are  several 
generations  of  larvae  each  season,  the  number  varying 
with  the  climate  and  latitude. 

This  insect  has  nnmerous  natural  enemies  Avith 
which  to  contend.  The  larvae  and  pupae  are  preyed  upon 
by  certain  parasitic  and  predaceous  insects,  and  the  but- 
terflies are  often  captured  by  insectivorous  birds,  as  well 
as  by  a  predaceous  bug  known  to  entomologists  as  Phy- 
mata  loolffii.  The  larvae  are  often  destroyed  by  thou- 
sands by  a  bacterial  disease-^a  sort  of  insect  cholera — 
that  has  lately  aided  greatly  in  checking  the  injuries  of 
this  pest. 


252 


IKSECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 


There  are  two  or  three  species  of  native  cabhage 
worms — notably  the  Southern  cabbage  butterfly  {Pieris 
protodice)  and  the  pot-herb  butterfly  (P.  ole^^acea)  closely 
related  and  similar  to  this  imported  worm,  that  were 
formerly  quite  injurious  to  cabbage,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  alien  species  they  have  been  largely 
crowded  to  the  wall,  and  are  seldom  destructive. 

Remedies. — Pyrethum  (insect  powder  or  buhach), 
hot  water  and  kerosene  emulsion  are  the  substances  that 
can  most  successfully  be  used  in  fighting  the  imported 

cabbage  worm.  The 
insect  powder  may  be 
diluted  with  six  or  eight 
times  its  bulk  of  flour, 
and  dusted  on  with  a 
powder  gun  or  bellows, 
or  it  may  be  mixed 
with  water  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  ounce  to 
water,  and  sprayed  upon  the 
preference  to  hot  water  as  a 
He  states  that  ^^  every  worm 
visible  upon  the  cabbages  may  be  killed  by  the  use  of 
hot  water  at  the  temperature  of  130°  Fahrenheit.  The 
water  may  be  boiling  hot  when  put  in  the  watering  can, 
but  it  will  not  be  too  hot  when  it  reaches  the  cabbage 
leaves."  Kerosene  emulsion  can  advantageously  be  used 
when  the  plants  are  young,  though  there  would  appear 
to  be  danger  of  tainting  the  heads  if  applied  to  the  fully 
developed  plants.  Whichever  method  of  treatment  is 
adopted,  it  should  be  carried  into  practice  at  frequent 
intervals,  thus  keeping  the  worms  well  in  check.  If  the 
plants  are  dusted  with  insect  powder  once  a  week  during 
the  time  that  the  worms  are  present,  they  will  cause 
little  or  no  trouble. 


FIG 


or 


four 

plants. 

remedy 


IMPORTED  CABBAGE 
FLY.  Male. 

five  gallons  of 
Dr.  Eiley  gives 
for  this  insect. 


THE   CABBAGE   PLUSIA 


253 


The  Cabbage  Plusia 

Plusia  hrassiccB 

This  insect,  illustrated  in  its  three  later  stages  at 
Fig.  135,  has  been  known  for  years  to  do  serious  injury 
to  a  number  of  gai'den  crops.  While  it  is  especially 
injurious  to  cabbage,  it  also  attacks  celery,  turnip,  tomato, 
clover,  cauliflower,  lettuce,  dandelion,  dock,  and  several 
other  plants.  The  adult  (shown  at  upper  part  of  Fig. 
135)  is  a  handsome,  dark-gray  moMi,  with  a  silvery  spot 
near  the  middle  of  each  front  wing.  Tlie  females  deposit 
their  pale,  greenish-yellow  eggs  singly  or  in  clusters,  on 


FIG.  135.    CABBAGE  PLUSIA.    a,  lai'va;  ft,  impa  in  cocoon;  c,  moth. 

the  cabbage  leaves,  usually  on  the  upper  surface.  The 
larv8B  soon  hatch  and  devour  the  leaves  as  they  develop, 
boring  small,  in-egular  holes  in  the  cabbage  head.  When 
full-grown  {a)  they  are  about  an  inch  long,  of  a  general 
pale-green  color,  with  longitudinal  lighter  stripes;  the 
head  is  small,  and  the  body  gradually  enlarges  from  the 
front  backward.  In  motion  the  body  assumes  a  looping 
position,  as  shown  in  the  figure.     The  full-grown  larva 


254  INSECTS   AND  INSECTICIDES 

spins  a  slight,  white,  silken  cocoon  on  the  cabbage  leaf, 
generally  on  the  lower  surface,  and  within  this  changes 
to  a  brownish  pupa  (b).  In  a  short  time  it  emerges  as 
a  moth.  At  the  South,  where  this  insect  is  ordinarily 
more  destructive  than  at  the  North,  there  are  several 
broods  each  season.  The  moths  are  nocturnal  or  crepus- 
cular, but  in  cloudy  weather  are  sometimes  seen  flying 
during  the  day. 

The  larvae  of  the  cabbage  plusia  are  subject  to  the 
attacks  of  many  enemies;  they  are  devoured  by  birds, 
destroyed  by  certain  parasitic  insects,  and  often  become 
the  victims  of  a  fungous  disease. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  more  difficult  to  destroy 
than  the  imported  cabbage  worm,  but  it  will  succumb  to 
pyrethrum  if  not  diluted  with  more  than  three  times  its 
bulk  of  flour,  and  may  also  be  killed  with  the  kerosene 
emulsion  applied  in  a  spray. 

The  Zebra   Caterpillar 

Cer arnica  picta 

This  caterpillar  is  at  once  distinguished  from  other 
larvae  feeding  upon  cabbage  by  the  brilliant  yellow  and 
black  markings  upon  its  body.  It  originates  from  small, 
spherical  eggs,  laid  in  clusters  upon  the  cabbage  leaves 
by  a  handsome,  pnr2:)lish -brown  moth  (Fig.  136,  b),  that 
appears  early  in  summer.  At  first  the  larvae  are  very 
dark,  and  feed  together  gregariously,  but  as  they  develop 
they  become  lighter  colored,  and  disperse  over  the  plant. 
When  disturbed  they  roll  up  and  drop  to  the  ground. 
They  become  full-grown  (a)  in  three  or  four  weeks, 
when  they  are  about  two  inches  long,  with  a  wide,  longi- 
tudinal,  velvet-black  stripe  npon  the  middle  of  the  back, 
and  two  bright  yellow  stripes  upon  ench  side,  which  are 
connected  by  fine,  yellow,  transverse  lines.  The  cater- 
pillars now  construct,  slightly  beneath  the  soil  surface. 


THE   WAVY   STEIPED   FLEA   BEETLE 


255 


loose  cocooDS  composed  of  particles  of  earth  fastened 
together  by  silken  tlireads,  within  which  they  change  to 
puj^ae.  About  a  fortnight  later  the  moths  emerge,  and 
deposit  eggs  for  a  second  brood  of  larvae,  which  develop 
early  in  autumn,  pupating  before  winter,  and  hibernating 
within  their  cocoons. 


FIG.  136.    ZEBRA  CATERPILLAR,    a,  larva;  6,  moth. 

Remedies. — When  young  the  larvae  are  congre- 
gated together  upon  one  or  a  few  leaves,  and  may  then 
easily  be  checked  by  hand  picking.  Later  they  are  open 
to  destruction  by  the  application  of  hot  water,  insect 
powder,  or  kerosene  emulsion. 

The  Wavy=striped    FIea=beetle 

Phyllotreta  vittata 

This  little  pest  does  not  by  any  means  confine  its 
depredations  to  the  cabbage,  but  attacks  turnip,  mus- 
tard, radish,  and  various  other  plants  as  well.  It  is 
represented  in  Fig.  137,  a,  and  is  a  small,  shining  black 
beetle,  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long,  with  a  broad,  yellow. 


256  IKSECTS  AND   IKSECTICIDES 

wavy,  longitudinal  stripe  on  each  wing  cover.  It  feeds 
upon  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  gnawing  out  little  pits. 
The  females  deposit  their  minute,  oval,  whitish  eggs 
upon  the  roots  of  various  cruciferous  plants,  such  as 
radish,  cabbage,  turnip,  etc.,  and  the  larvae  which  hatch 

Mfrom  them  feed  upon  these  roots, 
=  :  ^^.  sometimes  doing  serious  damage  in 
; '  ^i®  tl^is  way.  The  full-grown  larva  (b) 
I  ^^  is  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
i  with   a   yellowish-white    body,    and 

^  '''     brown    head.     There   appear   to   be 

FIG.  137.     WAVY-STRIPED  ^^ 

FLEA-BEETLE,    rt,  bee-  two  or  uiorc  broods  each  season. 

tie;  h,  larva;  c,  pupa.  Remedies.  —  Tobacco   powder 

is  the  best  remedy  for  these  little  pests.  If  applied 
freely  to  the  plants,  it  will  drive  them  away.  In  seasons 
when  the  beetles  are  not  too  thick,  dusting  the  plants 
with  dry,  unleached  wood  ashes,  or  lime  or  plaster,  will 
also  keep  them  off,  and  tobacco  decoction  is  a  good 
remedy. 

Cabbage  Cutworms 

The  cabbage  is  subject  to  attack  by  nearly  a  dozen 
species  of  cutworms,  nearly  all  of  which,  however,  are 
similar  in  habits  and  history,  and  may  well  be  treated 
of  collectively.  They  are  all  larvae  of  medium-sized, 
night-flying  moths,  and  are  rather  thick,  naked  worms 
of  the  general  form  of  Fig.  138,  a.  They  curl  up  when 
disturbed.  The  eggs  are  deposited  generally  on  the 
branches  of  trees  and  shrubs,  the  larvae  descending  to 
the  ground  in  search  of  food  as  soon  as  hatched.  Most 
of  them  feed  upon  grass  or  clover  when  young,  becom- 
ing about  half-grown  by  winter  time,  when  they  seek 
the  shelter  of  some  log  or  stone,  or  burrow  into  the  soil. 
Here  they  hibernate,  and  in  spring  come  forth  in  search 
of  food.     They  now  attack  a  variety  of  young  plants, 


CABBAGE   CUTWORMS 


257 


biting  off  the  stems  and  feeding  upon  the  leaves.  Cab- 
bages, tomatoes,  turnips,  squashes,  melons,  and  various 
other  garden  vegetables  are  all  liable  to  their  attacks. 
They  become  full-grown  in  spring  or  early  summer, 
when  they  pupate  beneath  the  soil  surface,  and  three  or 
four  weeks  later  emerge  as 
moths.  The  larva  (a)  and 
moth  {!))  ot  the  variegated 
cutworm  {Agrotis  saucia) 
are  represented,  natural 
size,  at  Fig.  138.  Some 
species  have  two  or  more 
broods  each  season,  while 
others  have  but  one.  Cut- 
worms are  especially  likely 
to  do  damage  in  fields  and 
gardens  close  to  grass 
lands,  and  to  crops  imme- 
diately following  grass. 

Remedies.  —  Of   the 
dozens  of  methods  of  destroying  cutworms,  there  are 
three  which  are  of  special  merit.     They  are  : 

(1 ).  The  poison  method.  This  consists  in  killing 
off  the  worms  before  the  crops  are  planted,  by  strewing 
over  the  soil  bunches  of  fresh  clover  or  cabbage  leaves, 
which  have  been  treated  with  Paris  green  or  London 
purple,  either  by  dipping  into  a  solution  of  the  poison, 
or  dusting  it  on  dry.  The  half-grown  worms  prowling 
about  in  search  of  food  eat  of  the  baits  thus  set,  and  are 
destroyed  before  doing  any  harm.  This  method  has 
proved  a  practical  success  with  many  gardeners,  and  is 
well  worth  trying  where  there  is  likely  to  be  trouble 
from  these  pests.  Of  course  care  must  be  taken  that 
chickens  or  stock  do  not  get  at  the  poisoned  leaves. 

(2).      Using  hoards  as  traps.     This  method  consists 
in  placing  boards  on  the  ground  in  and  about  the  gar- 
17 


FIG.  138.    VARIEGATED  CUTWORM. 
a,  larv.i;  h,  moth. 


258 


i:n'sects  and  insecticides 


den,  and  collecting  in  the  morning  the  worms  that  will 
congregate  beneath  them  during  the  night. 

(3)  Digging  out  the  worms  where  plants  have  been 
cut  off.  This  is  practicable  in  most  gardens,  and  is 
well  worth  doing,  thus  preventing  further  damage. 

The   Harlequin   Cabbage   Bug 

Murgantia  Idstrionica 

The  injuries  of  this  insect  were  first  noticed  in 
Texas  and  other  States  at  the  far  South,  but  it  has  grad- 
ually spread  northward,  especially  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  until  now  it  is  seriously  injurious  as  far  north  as 

Delaware.  It  feeds 
upon  a  variety  of  cru- 
ciferous plants,  includ- 
ing cabbage,  radish, 
mustard,  turnip,  etc. 
^  The  insect  ^^  derives 
its  name  from  the  gay, 
theatrical,  harlequin- 
like manner  in  which 
the  black  and  orange- 

FIG.  139.  HARLEQUIN  CABBAGE  BUG.  r/,ft,  J^HO^  COlOl'S  ai'C  ar- 
nymphs;  c,  eggs;  /,  Jidult;  g,  adult  with  ranged  upOU  its  body" 
wings    extended— all     natural     size;    f^,  /tti-         -ioq  T,      -f      \ 

eggs,    side    view;    e,    eggs,    view    from  \      &*    ^^^9    ^^?  ^^  ./>  y)' 
above,— rf,  e,  enlarged.  AcCOrdillg    to    Dr.     G. 

Lincecum,  in  Texas,  '^the  perfect  insect  lives  through 
the  winter,  and  is  ready  to  deposit  its  eggs  as  early  as 
the  15th  of  March,  or  sooner  if  it  finds  any  cruciform 
plant  large  enough.  They  set  their  eggs  (c,  d,  e)  on 
end  in  two  rows,  cemented  together,  mostly  on  the  under- 
side of  the  leaf,  and  generally  from  eleven  to  twelve  in 
number.  In  about  six  days  in  April  (four  days  in  July) 
there  hatches  out  from  these  eggs  a  brood  of  larvae,  re- 
sembling the  perfect  insect,  except  in  having  no  wings. 


THE   CABBAGE   APHIS  259 

Tliis  brood  immediately  begins  the  work  of  destruction 
by  piercing  and  sucking  the  life  sap  from  the  leaves, 
and  in  twelve  days  they  have  matured.  They  are  timid, 
and  run  off  and  hide  behind  the  first  leaf  stem,  or  any 
part  of  the  plant  that  will  answer  the  purpose.  The 
leaf  that  they  puncture  soon  wilts,  like  the  effects  of 
poison,  and  soon  withers.  Half  a  dozen  grown  insects 
will  kill  a  cabbage  in  a  day."  At  the  South  there  are 
several  broods  each  season. 

Remedies. — According  to  Mr.  Howard  Evarts 
Weed  of  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station,  ^^  there  is 
but  one  efficient  remedy  for  this  insect,  which  is,  to 
destroy  the  brood  which  lives  over  winter,  when  they 
congregate  upon  the  mustard  or  radish  plants.  Here 
they  can  be  destroyed  very  easily  by  the  application  of 
kerosene  (not  emulsified)  by  means  of  a  hand  force 
pump  or  common  watering  bucket.  If  the  insects  are 
thus  destroyed  early  in  the  season,  it  will  almost  wholly 
prevent  injury  later.  The  insects  fly  but  little,  and  are 
thus  not  apt  to  come  from  a  neighboring  field."  Those 
bugs  or  eggs  which  may  be  seen  on  cabbage,  should  be 
picked  off  and  destroyed.  Clean  cultivation  and  the 
burning  of  all  rubbish  are  important  preventive  meas- 
ures. In  spring  and  autumn  many  of  the  bugs  may  be 
trapped  by  laying  cabbage  or  turnip  leaves  between  the 
rows:  the  insects  will  harbor  under  these,  and  maybe 
collected  each  morning.  It  is  especially  important  to 
destroy  the  earlier  broods  of  this  pest,  because  otherwise 
it  increases  so  rapidly  as  to  be  almost  unconquerable. 

The   Cabbage  Aphis 

Aphis  hrassiccB 
Next  to  the  imported  cabbage  worm  this  species  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  injurious  insect  enemy  of  the  cabbage  ; 
and.it  also  infests  various  other  cruciferous  plants,  in- 
cluding turnip,  radish,  field  cress,  and  shepherd's  purse. 
It  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  European  species, 


260 


INSECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 


and  was  probably  introduced  into  America  at  an  early 
date.  It  is  probable  that  it  is  now  found  in  this  country 
wherever  the  cabbage  is  extensively  grown. 

The  cabbage  aphis  is  a  small,  greenish  msect,  gen- 
erally covered  with  a  whitish,  mealy  coating,  that  occurs 


F.  Detmers,  dd. 


YIG.  140.    CABBAGE  APHIS,    a,  male;   b,   head    and    antenna  ot  same; 
c,  female;  d,  head  and  antenna.     Magnified. 

in  great  numbers  ou  the  leaves  and  in  the  heads.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  months  it  reproduces  viviparously,  but 
in  autumn  true  males  and  females  (Fig.  ]  40)  are  devel- 
oped, eggs  being  deposited  by  the  latter  upon  the  cab- 
bage leaves.  Except  in  the  North  the  insect  winters 
over  in  the  adult  condition. 

Remedies. — Kerosene  emulsion  is  the  most  effec- 
tive insecticide  that  can  be  used  against  this  insect. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  THE  ONION 


INJURING    THE    BULBS 

The  Onion   Maggot 

Phorhia  ceparum 

Tlie  onion  maggot  is  closely  related  to  the  cabbage 
maggot,  to  which  it  is  similar  in  life  history  and  habits. 
The  adnlt  is  a  two-winged  fly,  which  deposits  its  small 
white  eggs  on  the  bulbs  or  lower  leaves  of  the  young 
plants.  About  a  week  later  the  eggs  hatch  into  young 
larvae  that  bore  into  the  bulbs,  absorbing  the  succulent 
substance.  When  one  bulb  is  consumed  they  pass  on  to 
another.  The  full-grown  larvae  are  nearly  half  an  inch 
long,  of  a  dull  white  color,  and  pointed  at  the  mouth  or 
front  end.  They  complete  theii'  larval  growth  in  about 
two  weeks,  and  then  leave  the  onions  and  enter  the  sur- 
rounding earth,  where  they  change  to  the  pupal  state 
within  brown  j)^M^^i'i^'  ^  fortnight  later  the  flies 
emerge  to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood. 

Remedies. — Professor  Cook  states  that  the  most 
practical  method  of  preventing  the  injuries  of  this  in- 
sect is  to  change  the  position  of  the  onion  bed  every 
year,  putting  it  each  time  some  distance  from  where  it 
was  the  preceding  season.  Wherever  the  conditions  are 
such  that  this  can  be  done,  this  is  probably  the  best 
preventive  measure.  Miss  Ormerod  reports  that  in 
England,  if  the  bulbs  are  kept  covered  with  earth,  they 
are  not  attacked  by  the  maggots.  Mr.  J.  J.  H.  Greg- 
ory says  that  the  best  remedy  is  '^a  hen  and  chickens. 

26i 


262  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

Allowing  a  coiijole  of  broods  to  an  acre,  confine  the  hen 
in  a  small  coop  near  the  middle  of  the  piece,  and  give 
the  chickens  free  exit.  They  will  soon  learn  to  catch 
the  fly  while  in  the  act  of  laying  the  egg  which  produces 
the  maggot."  The  insecticides  recommended  for  the 
cabbage  maggot  may  also  be  used  for  this  pest. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING    ASPARAGUS 


The  Asparagus   Beetle 

Crioceris  asparagi 

This  insect  was  introduced  into  America  from 
Europe  about  thirty  years  ago,  and  at  once  became  very 
destructive  to  asparagus  in -the  region  of  New  York  city. 
It  has  since  spread  over  a  large  area, 
being  reported  in  1890  as  far  west 
as  Ohio.  According  to  Professor 
Comstock  its  life  history  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  follows: 
^'IJpon  the  appearance  of  the  plants 
in  early  spring,  and  just  before  the 
cultivators  are  ready  to  begin  bunch- 
ing for  the  early  market,  the  beetles 
come  forth  in  great  numbers  from 
their  hibernating  quarters — under 
sticks,  stones,  rubbish,  and  especial- <?' 
ly  under  the  splinters  of  wood  on 
fences  and  under  the  scaly  bark  of 
trees — and  commence  gnawing  the 
tops  of  the  young  plants.  They 
pair  and  lay  their  e^'s^s  very  soon.  ^  ,, 

^  -^  °°  -^  BEETLE.  rt,eugs  on  stalk; 

The  eggs  (Fig.    141,  a)  are    oval    and&,  larva;  e,  beetle;  6  and 

are   placed   endwise   on   the    plant,  ^  "^''^s»ifieci. 
usually  in  rows  of  two  to  seven.     In  from  seven  to  ten 
days  the  young  larvae  begin  to  make  their  appearance. 
In  form  they  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Colorado 
potato-beetle  larvae.     The  general  color  is  grayish  olive 

263  '       ' 


ASPARAGUS 


264:  IN^SECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

with  shining  black  head  and  brown  legs.  When  full- 
grown  (b)  they  measure  a  little  over  three-tenths  of  an 
inch."  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  outer  bark  of  the  aspar- 
agus, and  develop  in  about  two  weeks  from  the  time  of 
hatching.  They  then  descend  to  the  earth  where, 
slightly  beneath  the  surface,  or  under  rubbish  above  the 
surface,  they  change  to  pupae.  About  ten  days  later 
they  emerge  as  beetles  to  feed  upon  the  plants  and  de- 
posit eggs  for  another  brood.  The  beetles  (c)  are  very 
pretty  little  creatures,  with  head,  legs  and  antennae  of  a 
shining  metallic  greenish-black  hue,  a  reddish-brown 
thorax  ornamented  with  two  conspicuous  black  spots, 
and  lemon-yellow  wing  covers,  marked  with  a  longitu- 
dinal black  stri])e  and  a  transverse  black  band.  There 
are  two  or  more  broods  each  season. 

Remedies. — Tlie  plan  most  successfully  adopted 
by  Long  Island  gardeners  to  prevent  the  injuries  of  this 
insect  is  that  of  destroying,  by  hoeing  or  other  cultiva- 
tion, all  volunteer  growth  of  asparagus,  leaving  only  the 
shoots  designed  for  market  for  the  beetles  to  lay  their 
eggs  upon.  These  shoots  are  cut  and  removed  so  often 
that  there  is  no  oppoi-tunity  for  the  eggs  to  hatch  in  the 
field,  and  thus  the  increase  of  the  pest  is  effectually  pre- 
vented. The  beetles  are  greedily  devoured  by  domestic 
fowls,  and  in  kitchen  gardens  these  can  sometimes  be 
advantageously  used  against  them.  Of  the  artificial 
insecticides,  pyrethrum  will  probably  give  the  best  re- 
sults. In  small  patches  it  has  been  found  practicable  to 
rub  off  the  eggs  from  the  growing  shoots. 


Insects  affecting  Cereal  and 
FORAGE  Crops 


PliATE  XIV.     THE  STRIPED  HARVEST  SPIDER. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  INDIAN  CORN 


INJURING  THE    ROOT 

The  Corn = root  Aphis 

Aphis  maidi-radicis 

This  is  a  small,  bluish-green  aphis,  or  louse,  which 
occurs  on  the  roots  of  corn,  from  the  time  it  comes  up 
in  spring  until  it  is  cut  in  autumn.  Its  general  form, 
when  magnified,  is  well 
shown  at  Fig.  142,  which 
represents  a  closely  related 
species,  the  apple  aphis. 
There  are  two  forms  found 
upon  the  roots,  one  having 
wings  and  the  other  not,  the 
latter  being  much  the  com- 
monest. Both  forms  are 
always  attended  by  the  com- 
mon, small  brown  ant  {Lasius 
aliemis),  which  cares  for  fig.  142.  apple  aphis.  Magnified. 
them  as  tenderly  as  it  does  for  the  eggs  and  young  of 
its  own  species.  Eggs  are  laid  by  the  aphides  during 
September  and  October,  in  the  subterranean  galleries  of 
the  ants,  and  are  collected  by  the  latter  and  cared  for 
all  winter.  In  spring,  when  the  lice  are  beginning  to 
hatch,  the  ants  tunnel  about  the  roots  of  corn,  or  various 
weedy  plants,  and  transport  the  little  aphides  to  them. 
The  lice  feed  upon  the  sap  of  the  plant,  sucking  it 
through  their  tiny  beaks,  and  multiply  viviparously,  or 
by  giving  birth  to  living  young.     They  continue  devel- 

267 


268  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

oping  in  this  way  until  fall,  when  the  egg-laying  brood 
is  produced. 

The  presence  of  these  lice  upon  the  roots  can  easily 
be  determined  by  carefully  pulling  or  digging  up  plants 
supposed  to  be  injured.  The  aphides,  if  present,  will  be 
seen  crowding  the  roots  as  small,  bluish-green  particles. 
The  affected  plants  generally  appear  yellow  and  sickly, 
growing  slowly  or  not  at  all. 

Remedies.  —  Professor  Forbes  summarizes  the 
economic  results  of  years  of  study  of  this  pest  by  recom- 
mending :'^  (1)  That  the  fertility  of  the  ground  should 
be  maintained  as  a  general  safeguard,  and  that  cultiva- 
tion should  be  so  managed — especially  that  of  the  lower 
parts  of  the  field — so  as  to  prevent  so  far  as  practicable 
the  seeding  of  pigeon  grass  and  smartweed  among  corn ; 
(2)  that  infested  fields  should  be  plowed  deeply  and 
thoroughly,  harrowed  late  in  fall  or  during  some  suitable 
early  winter  interval ;  and  (3)  that  a  somewhat  rapid 
rotation  of  crops  should  be  systematically  followed,  corn 
usually  being  allowed  to  grow  on  the  same  ground  but 
two  years  in  succession." 

The  Northern   Corn = root  Worm 

Diahrotica  longicornis 

In  Illinois,  Kansas  and  other  \¥estern  States,  the 
roots  of  corn  are  frequently  eaten  off,  during  June  and 
July,  by  a  slender  white  worm,  a  little  less  than  half  an 
inch  long,  and  about  as  thick  as  a  common  pin.  It  has 
a  small,  brown  head,  and  three  pairs  of  short  legs  near 
the  front  end,  as  shown  at  Fig.  143,  c.  It  attacks 
the  roots  from  the  outer  ends,  burrowing  beneath  the 
surface,  and  eating  its  way  toward  the  stalk.  Shortly 
after  midsummer  it  becomes  full-fed,  and  deserting  the 
root,  pupates  in  the  surrounding  soil.  The  pupa  {d)  is 
about  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long,  and  white  in  color.     A 


THE   NOETHERN"   CORK   ROOT  WORM 


269 


few  days  later  it  again  transforms,  and  emerges  as  a 
grass-green  beetle  of  the  form  represented  at  Fig.  143, 
e.  "The  beetle  climbs  up  the  stalk,"  according  to 
Professor  Forbes's  account,  'Miving  upon  fallen  pollen, 
and  upon  the  silk  at  the  top  of  the  ear,  until  the  latter 
dries,  when  a  few  of  the  beetles  creep  down  between  the 
husks  and  feed  upon  the  corn  itself,  while  the  others 
resort  for  food  to  the  pollen  of  such  weeds  in  the  field  as 
are  at  that  time  in  blossom.  In  September  and  October 
the  eggs  (a)  are  laid  in  the  ground,  upon  or  about  the 
roots  of  the  corn,  and  most  of  the  beetles  soon  after  dis- 


FIG.  143.    CORN-BOOT  WORM,    a,  egg;  6,  smaU  section  of  egg,  greatly 
magnified;  c,  larva;  d,  pupa;  e,  beetle.    Magnified. 

appear  from  the  field."  Tliey  feed  for  awhile  upon  vari- 
ous fall  flowers  and  gradually  die  off,  the  winter  being 
passed  by  means  of  the  eggs  deposited  in  the  corn  ground. 
The  eggs  hatch  the  following  spring. 

Remedies. — As  the  eggs  of  this  insect  are  depos- 
ited in  autumn  in  corn  ground,  rotation  of  crops  furnishes 
a  simple  method  of  preventing  its  injuries.  If  the  land 
is  planted  to  some  other  crop  the  year  following,  the 
larvae,  on  hatching,  will  be  deprived  of  suitable  food, 
and  consequently  will  perish. 


270 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


The  Southern  Corn=root  Worm 

Diahrotica  VZ-punctata 

The  four  later  stages  of  this  insect  are  represented 
at  Fig.  144.  The  larva  {p)  is  a  slender,  whitish  worm, 
about  half  an  inch  long,  resembling  the  Northern  corn- 
root  worm,  to  which  in  fact  it  is  closely  related.  It 
feeds  promiscuously  upon  the  roots  and.  base  of  the  stalk 


FIG.  144.    SOUTHERN  CORN-KOOT  WORM,    a,  egg ;  6,  larva;  r,corn  stalk 
showing  pun ctn res;  <^7,  pupa;  e,  beetle.    All  bnt  c  magnified. 

of  corn,  pupating  in  the  soil  about  the  roots,  and  emerg- 
ing shortly  afterwards  as  a  yellow  beetle  with  twelve 
black  spots  upon  the  back  {e).  There  are  two  broods 
each  season,  eggs  for  the  first  brood  being  deposited  by 
the  female  beetles  in  spring  about  the  roots  of  young 
corn,  and  the  second  brood  of  larvae  generally  develop- 
ing upon  the  roots  of  certain  wild  plants,  especially  those 
of  the  Composite  family.     The  insect  hibernates  as  an 


WIKEWORMS 


271 


adult,  and  the  beetles  feed  upon  a  great  variet)^  of  vegeta- 
tion, often  doing  serious  damage  to  cucumbers,  squashes, 
melons,  and  other  garden  vegetables. 

Remedies. — l^o  practicable  remedy  has  yet  been 
found  for  this  insect  in  its  corn-infesting  stage. 


Wireworms 

ElateridcB 

Sprouting  kernels  of  corn  are  often  attacked  by  a 
hard,  slender,  yellowish  worm,  commonly  called  the 
wire  worm,  which  eats  out  the  substance  of  the  seed  or 
attacks  the  young  roots.  These  are  the  young  or  larvae 
of  various  species  of  brown,  flat- 
tened, elongate  beetles,  called 
click  beetles,  snapping  bugs,  orMJ 
^^ skipjacks,"  on  account  of  their 
habit  of  snapping  upward  in  the  ^ 
air  when  placed  on  their  backs. 
Eggs  are  laid  by  these  beetles  in 
grass  lands  esjDecially,  aud  the 
larvae  that  hatch  feed,  presumably 
for  two  years,  upon  the  roots  of 
various  plants.  They  finally 
transform  during  autumn  in  hoi-  o 
low  cells  in  the  earth  into  pupae, 
and  shortly  afterwards  again  change  to  beetles.  They 
do  not  all  however,  leave  their  pupa  cells  at  once,  but 
many  remain  in  them  until  the  following  spring.  Pro- 
fessor J.  H.  Comstock  has  found  that  in  breeding  cages, 
if  these  cells  be  broken  open  in  the  fall,  the  beetles  die. 

Remedies. — On  account  of  the  fact  just  mentioned, 
fall  plowing  has  been  recommended  as  a  preventive  of 
wireworm  injury,  the  supposition  being  that  the  cells  in 
which  the  beetles  are  resting  will  thus  be  broken  open 
and  the  insects  perish.     A  rotation  by  which  clover  will 


145.       WIREWORM     AND 
CLICK  BEETLE. 


272  II?-SECTS   AND  Iiq-SECTICIDES 

come  in  between  grass  and  corn  is  suggested  as  the  best 
way  of  preventing  injury  in  cornfields. 

INJURING  THE  STALK   AND  LEAVES 

The  Stalk  Borer 

Gortyna  nitela 

The  terminal  leaves  of  growing  corn  plants  are  some- 
times observed  suddenly  to  wilt  and  wither.  If  pulled 
upward  it  will  be  seen  that  they  have  been  cut  off  inside 
the  stalk,  where  there  will  generally  be  found  a  striped, 


±  z 

FIG.  146.    STALK  BORER.    1,  moth ;  2,  larva. 

brown  worm,  of  the  form  represented  at  Fig.  146,  2. 
This  is  the  stalk  borer,  so  called  because  of  its  habit  of 
burrowing  the  stalks  of  various  plants,  such  as  the  potato, 
tomato,  cocklebur,  etc.  It  hatches  from  an  Qgg  laid  by 
a  brown  moth  (1),  and  pupates  beneath  the  soil  surface. 
The  moths  appear  late  in  summer  or  early  in  autumn, 
and  the  insect  apparently  hibernates  in  its  adult  condition. 
Remedies. — The  only  general  measure  that  can  be 
recommended  against  this  insect  is  that  of  clean  farming. 
The  species  largely  develops  in  wayside  weeds,  and  con- 
sequently these  should  be  destroyed.  Wherever  the  larvse 
are  found  at  work  they  should,  of  course,  be  killed. 


THE   GARDEK   WEBWORM 


273 


Cutworms 

NoctuidcB 

The  general  life  history  of  the  various  species  of  cut- 
worms has  already  been  described  on  Page  256.  These 
pests  are  especially  liable  to  injure  corn  planted  on  sod 
land,  but  such  damage  may  easily  be  prevented  by  using 
the  poison  traps  described  in  connection  with  remedies 
for  cabbage  cutworms  (p.  257).  The  field  to  be  planted 
should  be  strewn  with  poisoned  clover  or  grass,  or  cab- 
bage leaves,  before  the  crop  is  put  in,  although  if  not 
done  then  the  baits  may  be  placed  between  the  rows 
afterwards. 


The   Garden   Webworm 

Eurycreon  rantalis 

This  insect  occasionally  becomes  destructive  over  a 
wide  area,  and  damages  a  great  variety  of  crops,  althongh 
corn  usually  suffers  most. 
The  adult  is  a  sm^all  grayish 
moth  (Fig.  147,  /),  expand- 
ing about  three-quarters  of 
an  inch,  the  females  of 
which  deposit  their  eggs 
upon  the  leaves  or  stems  of 
various  plants.  Soon  after 
hatching   the   young    larvae 

hpo-in  i(\  «m"n  n  -nvn+pp fi vp  ^IG.  147.  GARDEN  wep.worm.  a, 
Degin  to  spin  a  piOteCtlve  larva;  rf,  pupa,  botH  twice natm-ui 
web,    which    is    enlarged    as     size ;/,  moth,  sliglitly  enlarged. 

the  insects  develop.  Beneath  this  they  feed  upon  the 
foliage,  eating  at  first  only  the  surface  substance,  but  as 
they  grow  older  they  devour  the  whole  leaf.  The  larvae 
become  full-grown  in  about  a  fortnight,  when  they  spin 
thin,  brownish  cocoons  on  the  ground,  and  change  to 
18 


274  IKSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

pupae,  to  emerge  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later  as  moths. 
There  are  two  or  three  broods  each  season. 

Remedies. — Spraying  or  dusting  infested  plants 
with  London  purple  or  Paris  green  is  the  most  practical 
remedy  for  this  insect  that  has  yet  been  suggested. 

The  Corn=leaf  Aphis 

Aphis  maidis 

The  leaves  and  stalks  of  corn  are  often  infested  by 
colonies  of  a  small  bluish  ai:>his  or  plant  louse,  the  ma- 
jority of  which  are  wingless  and  the  rest  winged.  This 
is  the  corn  aphis.  It  has  been  for  a  long  while  consid- 
ered the  aerial  form  of  the  corn-roofc  louse,  but  the  latest 
investigations  indicate  that  the  two  are  distinct  species. 

The  full  life  history  of  this  insect  is  not  known.  It 
is  probably  the  summer  form  of  some  species  that  passes 
the  fall,  winter  and  spring  upon  a  tree  or  shrub.  The 
winged  viviparous  females  appear  upon  the  corn  early  in 
summer  and  start  colonies  of  young  lice  which  develop 
rapidly  and  continue  to  multiply  viviparously  until  the 
approach  of  cold  weather  in  autumn.  Then  a  winged 
brood  appears  and  leaves  the  corn,  migrating,  doubtless, 
to  some  other  plant.  But  where  it  goes,  and  where  the 
winged  females  that  start  the  colonies  in  early  summer 
come  from,  is  not  known. 

These  plant  lice  have  many  natural  enemies  with 
which  to  contend.  Chief  among  these  are  certain  mi- 
nute four- winged  parasitic  flies,  the  lady  beetles  and  the 
harvest  spiders  or  daddy  longlegs.  The  first-named  of 
these  enemies  are  true  parasites,  developing  within  the 
bodies  of  the  aphides,  but  the  rest  are  predaceous  insects. 
There  are  several  species  of  lady  beetles  that,  both  in 
their  larval  and  adult  states,  prey  upon  the  corn  apliis. 
It  is  probable,  also,  that  great  numbers  of  the  aphides 
are  destroyed  by  the  harvest  spiders  which  abound  upon 


THE   CORK   WORM   OR   BOLLWORM 


375 


corn  plants  during  summer.  One  of  the  commonest  of 
these — the  striped  harvest  spider — is  shown,  natural 
size,  at  Plate  XIV. 

Remedies. — It  seldom  becomes  necessary  to  resort 
to  artificial  remedies  for  this  insect.  While  it  could 
readily  be  destroyed  with  kerosene  emulsion,  the  appli- 
cation generally  would  not  pay  in  field  culture. 

INJURING  THE   EARS 

The  Corn  Worm    or    Bollworm 

Heliotlds  armigera 

In  the  Southern  States  this  insect  is  called  the  boll- 
worm  because  it  feeds  upon  cotton  bolls ;  but  at  the 


FIG.  148.  CORN  WORM,  a,  b,  eggs,  Side  view  and  top  view,  magnified; 
c,  larva;  d,  pupa,  in  cocoon;  e,  moth  with  wings  expanded  ;  /,  moth 
with  wings  closed. 

North  it  is  known  as  the  corn  worm  from  its  habit  of 
eating  the  kernels  of  ri2:>ening  corn.  On  this  account  it 
has  come  to  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  most  vexatious 


PLATE  XV.     CORN  INJUBED  BY  CORN  WORM. 


THE    CORN"    WORM    OR    BOLLWORM  277 

insect  enemies  of  this  crop,  and  no  thoroughgoing  rem- 
edy that  is  practicable  on  a  large  scale  has  as  yet  been 
devised  for  it.  The  parent  is  a  good-sized,  greenish- 
yellow  moth  (Fig.  148  e,  f)  with  a  conspicuous  black 
spot  near  the  middle  of  the  front  wings,  and  various 
olive  or  rufous  markings.  These  insects  deposit  their 
eggs  among  the  silks  of  the  young  ears.  The  larvse 
soon  hatch  and  eat  through  the  husk  to  the  succulent 
kernels  beneath,  which  they  devour  greedily  for  several 
weeks,  gnawing  irregular  channels  along  the  cob  (Plate 
XV).  When  full-grown  (148,  c)  they  are  an  inch  and  a 
half  long,  of  a  pale  green  or  dark  brown  color,  ornamented 
with  longitudinal  darker  stripes.  They  now  leave  the 
ear,  and,  entering  the  soil  a  few  inches,  form  loose 
cocoons  of  silk  with  particles  of  soil  intermixed,  within 
which  they  chauge  to  chestnut-brown  pupre  (148,  cl), 
emerging  about  a  fortnight  later  as  moths.  At  the  North 
there  are  two  broods,  a  third  one  occasionally  developing 
in  exceptionally  long  seasons,  while  at  the  South  there 
are  four  or  five.  The  first  brood  is  especially  likely  to 
infest  early  sweet  corn  in  gardens. 

Remedies. — Hand  picking  is  the  only  remedy  that 
has  been  suggested,  except  that  of  catching  the  moths 
by  light  traps.  The  silk  of  infested  ears  shows  the  pres- 
ence of  the  larvae  by  being  prematurely  dry  or  partially 
eaten,  and  the  larvae  may  be  readily  found  and  crushed. 
In  garden  patches  of  sweet  corn,  at  least,  this  method  is 
worth  using.  In  fields,  fall  plowing  will  help  to  reduce 
the  amount  of  damage  by  destroying  the  pupae,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  by  exposing  them  to  the  weather 
and  birds. 


INSECTS  AFFECTING  WHEAT 


INJURING  THE  STALK   AND    LEAF 

The   Hessian   Fly 

Ceaidomyia  destructor 

This  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  best-known  insect  pests 
of  American  agriculture.  It  has  ranked  as  a  destructive 
species  for  more  than  a  century,  and  has  jDrobablj  been 

introduced  nearly  every- 
where that  wheat  is 
groAvu.  The  adult  is  a 
small,  two- winged,  mos- 
quito-like fly  (Fig.  149, 
d),  the  females  of  which 
deposit  their  eggs  on  the 
up23er  surfaces  of  the 
wheat  blades  early  in 
autumn.  In  a  few  days 
the  larvae  hatch,  and 
each  descends  the  leaf 
to  the  base  of  the  sheath, 
where  it  attaches  itself,  head  downwards,  to  the  stalk, 
and  proceeds  to  absorb  the  life  sa23  of  the  plant.  As  the 
latter  grows  the  young  larva  becomes  imbedded  in  the 
stalk,  where  it  remains  stationary.  When  full-grown 
(which  occurs  in  three  or  four  weeks  from  the  time  of 
hatching)  the  larva  is  a  soft,  white,  footless  maggot  of 
the  form  represented  at  a.  Its  outer  skin  now  becomes 
hard  and  brown,  and  separates  from  the  rest  of  the  body, 

278 


FIG.    149.       HESSIAN    FLY.      a, 
pupa;  c,  injured  stem;  d 


larva ; 

fly. 


THE  HESSIAN   FLY  279 

although  it  still  surrounds  the  latter,  forming  a  sort  of 
cocoon,  or,  as  it  is  more  correctly  called,  puparium 
within  which  the  insect  changes  to  a  pupa  (b).  This  is 
the  '^flaxseed"  state,  so  called  because  of  the  resemblance 
of  these  brown  puparia  to  flaxseeds.  The  winter  is  usu- 
ally passed  in  this  condition,  and  in  spring  the  flies 
emerge  from  the  flaxseeds  to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood. 
The  larvae  of  the  fall  brood  affect  the  young  wheat 
plants  just  above  the  roots,  between  the  stalk  and  sheath- 
ing base  of  the  leaf,  but  the  spring  generation  are 
formed  a  little  higher  up,  at  the  joints  an  inch  or  more 
above  the  soil  surface.  This  second  generation  completes 
its  transformations  before  harvest,  and  there  is  often,  if 
not  always,  at  least  as  far  north  as  the  latitude  of  40°,  a 
third  brood,  which  develops  during  summer  in  volunteer 
wheat;  and  Professor  Forbes  has  shown  that  there  may 
occasionally  be  even  a  fourth  brood  during  the  year.  But 
the  chief  damage  is  done  by  the  fall  and  spring  broods. 

There  are  several  species  of  insect  parasites  which 
attack  the  Hessian  fly,  so  checking  it  that  in  most  localities 
it  only  occasionally  becomes  injurious. 

Remedies. — The  most  promising  method  of  pre- 
venting the  injuries  of  this  insect  appears  to  be  that  of 
inducing  the  flies  to  deposit  their  eggs  in  young  wheat, 
and  then  destroying  it.  Where  a  third  brood  develops 
in  volunteer  wheat  this  end  may  be  accomplished  by 
turning  under  this  volunteer  growth  when  the  Hessian- 
fly  larvee  are  about  half-grown  ;  or  in  case  no  such  brood 
iIevelo23S  in  the  volunteer  wheat,  a  few  strips  in  the  field 
may  be  seeded  to  wheat  a  few  weeks  before  the  regular 
planting  time,  and  the  flies  will  lay  their  eggs  in  these, 
which  are  afterwards  to  be  plowed  under.  Th^^s  the 
main  crop  of  wheat  will  escape  infestation. 


280 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


The  Chinch   Bug 

Blissus  leucopterus 

The  cliincli  bug  and  the  Eocky  Mountain  locust  have 
long  been  known  as  the  arch  enemies  of  Western  agricul- 
ture. They  have  each  destroyed  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  property,  and  have  often  caused  great  destitution  over 
large  areas.     The  chinch  bug  flourishes  best  at  the  South, 


FIG.  150.    CHINCH  BUG.    a,  b,  cggs ;  c,  e,/, young;  g,  nymph  or  pupa;  h, 
adult.    Magnified. 

but  occasionally  occurs  in  destructive  numbers  as  far 
north  as  New  York  and  Minnesota.  Like  other  injurious 
insects  it  is  subject  to  periodical  uprisings,  which  usually 
continue  one,  two,  or  three  seasons  before  the  various 
natural  checks  upon  its  increase  reduce  its  numbers  below 
the  danger  line. 

The  adult  chinch  bug  (Fig.  150,  h)  is  a  small  black- 
ish insect,  slightly  less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch  long, 
with  the  legs  dark  yellow,  and  their  tips  black.  The 
young  (c,  e,  f)  do  not  differ  in  general  form  from  the 
adults.  When  first  hatched  they  are  pale  yellow,  but 
they- soon  become  red  ;  this  continues  to  be  the  prevail- 
ing color  until  the  pupal  or  last  nymph  stage  {g)  is 


THE   CHINCH   BUG  281 

reached.     The  insect  is  then  grayish  or  brownish-black. 

The  eggs  (a,  h)  are  quite  small,  being  about  0.03  inch  in 
length,  and  amber'  colored.  Short-winged  varieties  of 
the  adult  chinch  bugs  are  sometimes  found. 

Professor  S.  A.  Forbes  has  summarized  the  life  his- 
tory of  this  insect  as  follows  :  ^^The  chinch  bug  jDasses 
the  winter  in  the  adult  winged  state  (a  few  black  wing- 
less individuals  occasionally  occurring)  under  rubbish  in 
or  around  the  fields,  in  corn  shocks  and  straw  piles, 
under  boards  and  among  dead  leaves  in  the  woods,  most 
abundant,  usually,  around  the  edges  of  the  fields  and  in 
thickets,  and  around  the  borders  of  woods.  From  these 
lurking  places  such  as  survive  the  winter  emerge  in 
April  and  May  (possibly  sooner,  if  the  season  opens 
early),  and,  after  pairing,  lay  their  eggs  in  May  and 
June,  in  fields  of  spring  and  winter  wheat,  barley, 
rye,  oats  and  corn — chiefly  in  wheat  and  barley — most 
of  the  eggs  being  deposited  in  or  near  the  ground,  on 
the  lower  parts  of  the  plants.  Many  of  those  hibernat- 
ing around  fields  soAvn  to  wheat  and  barley  make  their 
way  in  on  foot,  thus  attacking  the  outer  edges  first ;  but 
others  take  wing  and  scatter  freely  wherever  suitable 
food  invites  them. 

'^By  July  most  of  the  old  bugs  will  be  dead,  and 
the  new  brood  will  be  nearly  full-grown, — far  enough 
advanced  by  harvest  to  abandon  the  wheat  fields  for  the 
nearest  available  food — oats  or  corn,  if  these  are  adja- 
cent ;  otherwise  and  more  rarely,  grass.  Making  their 
way  in  on  foot,  only  the  borders  of  these  fields  will  be  at 
first  attacked ;  but  later,  by  the  1st  of  August  at  the 
farthest,  the  bugs  not  already  located  will  begin  to  fly, 
and  so  will  become  generally  disseminated  through  fields 
of  corn.  Here  the  eggs  are  laid  behind  sheaths  of  the 
lower  leaves,  and  under  the  protection  of  this  retreat  the 
young  hatch  and  mature,  only  coming  out  upon  the 
exposed  surfaces  of  the  leaves  when  they  become  super- 


282  INSECTS   AI^D   IN'SECTICIDES 

abundant  or  when  they  get  their  groAvth.  The  full- 
grown  bugs  fly  freely,  singly  but  not  in  swarms,  when- 
ever their  food  fails  them  where  they  are.  Earely  we 
find  in  the  southern  part  of  Illinois  some  trace  of  a  third 
brood  in  a  season,  the  young  of  these  appearing  in  Sep- 
tember in  the  corn — but  these  are  in  too  small  numbers 
to  have  any  practical  importance.  The  broods  are 
mainly  two,  one  breeding  chiefly  in  wheat,  and  the  other 

J-    ^r^ii* almost  wholly   in   corn,   the 

I'/f  adults   of   the    latter    brood 

II I  ^k  f         passing  the  winter  as  above 

///       ^^        i  described.      Each    female  is 

7»/    S    X^rf      a        believed  to  be  capable  of  lay- 
iw     •   \     J^mT     J         ^^§  about  five  hundred  eggs. 
fHiffl         ^JJ^BRr  ^^The     chinch    bug     is 

Ira  r  ^^H^E(,  practically  confined  for  food 

jJKJJ  vJ^^^^TO^       ^^  ^^  great  family  of  grasses 

iW/  ffli^^^lT^  {GraminecB)  which  contains 
\Ml  t  i|^^y|E.  \  Q'^l  the  cereals  and  grasses, 
wm  ^  #B^^^*\  tame  and  wild.  Some  of 
Mr  J  ^aI^SI  1       these,  however,  it  feeds  upon 

H  a  ^S^^t    \      ^^^   reluctance,    if    at    all ; 

Ifw  f     ^JP^      ^      and  among  the  ordinary  ob- 

ll^  jects  of  its  food  it  has  its  very 

lli||  decided  preferences.    Among 

\  the  crop  plants,  wheat,  barley 

FIG.  151.   CHINCH  BUGS  AFFECTED  aud     ryc,    sorghum,    broom 

and  Hungarian  grass  are  its  favorite  foods,  with  oats 
clearly  second  to  these  ;  while  among  the  wild  grasses 
its  preference  is  for  foxtail  grass  and  '  tickle  grass ' 
(Setaria  and  Eragrostis).^^ 

The  chinch  bug  is  subject  to  the  attack  of  various 
predaceous  insects  and  vertebrate  enemies.  Of  the  for- 
mer the  ladybugs  furnish  a  good  example,  and  of  the 
latter  certain  birds,  especially  the  quail,  may  be  men- 


THE   CHURCH   BUG  283 

tioned.  But  these  enemies  are  insignificant  so  far  as 
concerns  their  effects  upon  the  numbers  of  the  bugs, 
when  compared  with  certain  fungous  or  bacterial  dis- 
eases to  which  these  pests  are  liable.  These  diseases 
sweep  them  off  by  the  million,  and  are  usually  the  most 
potent  factor  in  checking  their  outbreaks.  One  of  these 
IS  a  fungus  that  develops  on  the  surface  of  the  bug  as  a 
dense  white  covering.  This  disease  is  illustrated  at  Fig. 
151  :  a  number  of  the  dead  bugs  are  shown  on  a  dead 
wheat  stalk  at  the  left,  while  a  single  bug,  much  magni- 
fied, covered  with  the  fungus,  is  represented  at  the  right. 
This  fungus  belongs  to  a  genus  of  plants  called  by  bot- 
anists Entomophthora. 

Remedies. — Professor  S.  A.  Forbes  has  divided 
the  remedial  and  preventive  measures  applicable  to  the 
chinch  bug  into  three  general  classes,  namely  :  (1)  Ag- 
ricultural methods ;  (2)  barriers  against  migration  ;  (3) 
direct  destruction.  Under  the  first  of  these  heads  are 
included  (1)  clean  farming,  especially  the  cleaning  up  of 
refuse  that  may  serve  as  protection  for  the  bugs  during 
winter,  and  the  destruction  of  the  grass-like  weeds  upon 
which  they  feed ;  (2)  diversified  farming  and  the  culture 
of  crops  not  affected  by  the  chinch  bug;  (3)  the  tem- 
porary abandonment,  in  corn  districts,  of  small  grains, 
especially  wdieat  and  barley ;  and  vice  versa,  the  similar 
abandonment  of  corn  in  small  grain  districts  ;  (4)  heavy 
fertilization  to  enable  the  crops  better  to  withstand 
attack ;  (5)  the  use  of  surplus  seed,  or  the  mixing  of 
clover  or  timothy  seed  with  small  grains  when  sowed,  to 
produce  a  heavy  growth  in  which  chinch  bugs  do  not 
like  to  work  ;  (6)  plowing  under  the  bugs  and  their  eggs 
whenever  this  is  practicable. 

Under  the  head  of  barriers  against  migration  are 
included  :  (1)  plowing  and  harrowing  at  harvest  time 
around  infested  fields,  or  ploAving  one  or  two  deep  furrows 
around  the  field  ;  (2)  pouring  coal  tar  along  the  ground 


284  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

just  outside  the  infested  fields  and  digging  holes  occasion- 
ally on  the  inside  of  the  tar  line  for  the  bugs  to  fall  into  ; 
(3)  planting  strips  with  crops  not  subject  to  injury  by 
the  chinch  bug. 

But  the  most  satisfactory  class  of  remedies  consists  of 
those  by  which  the  insects  are  killed  outright,  and  in 
future  outbreaks  these  will  probably  play  a  much  more 
important  part  than  in  the  past.  The  bugs  are  easily 
destroyed  by  kerosene  emulsion,  and  by  means  of  the 
improved  spraying  machines  now  upon  the  market  this 
substance  can  advantageously  be  used  against  them.  Dur- 
ing fall,  winter  and  spring,  all  infested  grasslands,  and  so 
far  as  possible,  wood  lands,  should  be  burned  over  to 
destroy  the  hibernating  bugs.  Remarkable  success  has 
also  lately  been  attained  in  spreading,  artificially,  the 
fun<yous  diseases  of  the  chinch  bug. 

The    Grain   Aphis 

Siphonophora  avenc^ 

This  insect  occasionally  becomes  destructive  to  wheat 
and  oats  over  large  areas.     It   is  a   small  greenish  or 


FIG.   152.      WHEAT    INFESTED  BY  GRAIN  APHIS. 

brownish  aphis,  with  or  without  wings,  which  breeds 
upon  wheat,  oats,  and  various  other  plants  of  the  grass 
family.  It  obtains  its  food  by  inserting  a  pointed  beak 
into  the  leaf  or  stem  and  sucking  out  the  sap.  As  the 
wheat  gets  ripe  it  migrates  to  tlie  more  succulent  oats, 
and  when  these  ripen  goes  to  various  grasses.  It  brings 
forth  living  young,  and  its  rate  of  multiplication  is  very 
great,  it  being  estimated  that  a  single  louse  m  spring 


THE   WHEAT   BULB   WORM 


285 


may  become  the  ancestor  of  millions  before  autumn. 
The  true  sexed  forms  have  not  yet  been  found.  The 
injury  of  these  insects  is  chiefly 
manifested  by  the  shriveling  of 
tlie  grain  in  infested  fields. 

Fortunately  tliis  insect  has 
many  natural  enemies  with 
which  to  contend.  Chief  among 
these  are  little  four- winged  par- 
asitic flies,  and  various  species 
of  lady  beetles.  These  natural 
enemies  are  undoubtedly  the 
means  of  preventing  this  pest 
from  overrunning  grain-fields 
every  year. 

Remedies.  —  As  yet  no 
practical  artificial  remedy  for 
the  grain  aphis  is  known.  Ker- 
osene emulsion  will  destroy 
them,  but  the  difficulty  of  reach- 
ing them  with  it  when  they 
occur  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaf,  makes  the  remedy 
hardly  practical.  We  must  or- 
dinarily rely  ui)on  the  weather 
and  its  various  natural  enemies  to  hold  it  in  check. 


FIG.    153.     GRAIN    APHIDES    ON 

WHEAT  HEAD.    MHi-uitied. 


The   Wheat=bulb   Worm 

Meromyza  americana 

This  insect  has  attracted  the  attention  of  economic 
entomologists  only  during  comparatively  recent  years. 
The  adult  is  a  handsome  two-winged  fly  (Fig.  154,  d), 
having  two  longitudinal  yellowish  stripes  along  its  back. 
The  females  deposit  eggs  in  the  fall  on  the  young  wheat 
plants,  and  the  larvce,  on  hatching,  feed  upon  the  central 


286 


INSECTS   AI^D   INSECTICIDES 


portion  of  the  stem,  just  above  the  bulb  of  the  plant. 
They  remain  here  through  the  winter,  becoming  full- 
grown  in  spring.  They  are  then  footless  cylindrical  larvae 
of  the  form  shown  at  h.     They  pupate  in  the  spring  and 

a  fortnight  later 
emerge  as  flies.  After 
mating,  the  female 
flies  of  this  brood  de- 
posit eggs  for  larvse 
which  work  into  the 
straw,  just  above  the 
last  joint,  thus  cut- 
ting off  the  sap  siip- 
^_    .^.  .  ply    from    the    head 

FIG.    154.     WHEAT-BULB    WORM,     a,    egg ;    6,        "'^ 

larva;  c.pupaiium;  c?,  fly.    Magnified.       and      CaUSing      it      tO 

wither  and  dry  up.  These  larvae  complete  their  trans- 
formations during  July,  when  they  are  on  the  wing  as 
flies.  Early  in  July  eggs  are  deposited  by  this  brood  of 
flies  on  volunteer  wheat,  and  the  transformations  of 
these  are  completed  in  time  for  the  adults  to  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  fall  wheat.  Consequently  there  are  three 
broods  each  season.  Besides  wheat  this  insect  breeds 
in  oats  and  various  grasses. 

Remedies. — The  destruction  of  volunteer  wheat 
after  the  worms  have  got  started  in  it,  and  the  early 
planting  of  strips  to  induce  them  to  oviposit,  are  the 
best  remedial  measures  for  this  insect. 


Wheat  Jointworms 

Isosoma  hordei  and  /.  tritici 

There  are  two  nearly  related  species  of  minute  four- 
winged  flies  (Fig.  155)  which  deposit  eggs  in  wheat 
stems  that  hatch  into  the  so-called  jointworms.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  F.  M.  Webster,  ''the  females  push  their 
ovipositors  into  the  stems  of  growing  wheat  and  deposit 


WHEAT   JOINTWORMS 


287 


their  eggs  singly,  but  often  several  in  each  straw.  This 
is  done  during  the  early  spring,  and  again  during  June, 
in  the  latitude  of  Central  Indiana,  the  young  larvae  feed- 
ing upon  the  substance  of  the  stem;  but,  being  secure 
from  ordinary  observation,  they  are  seldom  noticed. 
We  have  found  five  of  these  larvae  at  work  on  a  single 
stem.     These  worms  do  not  usually  wither  the  straw, 


a  111  9 

FIG.    155.    JOiNTVVORM.    a,  gaUs  at   joints;  b,    female  fly.    Magnified. 

and  the  effect  of  their  work  is  only  to  be  observed  in  the 
shorter  and  more  slender  stem,  shorter  heads  and  smaller 
and  less  plump  kernels. 

''The  larva?  are  almost  invariably  found  below  the 
upper  joint,  and  hence,  by  cutting  the  grain  a  little 
high,  they  can  be  left  in  the  field,  and  as  they  pass  the 
winter  as  pupae  in  the  same  situation,  by  burning  the 
stubble  any  time  between  harvest  and  the  following 
March  they  can  be  destroyed.  As  the  adults  emerging 
from  the  old  straws  in  spring  are  almost  invariably 
wingless,  they  cannot  travel  about  very  rapidly.  And 
hence  changing  the  grain  from  one  field  to  another,  or 
rotating  the  crop,  is  often  quite  effectual  in  keeping 
them  in  check.  Those  adults  appearing  in  June  from 
the  growing  plants   are   provided  with   well-developed 


288  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

wings,  and  can  travel  about  from  field  to  field  with  the 
utmost  freedom." 

INJURING  THE    HEADS 

The   Wheat  Midge 

Cecidomyia  tritici 

This  insect  is  closely  related  to  the  Hessian  fly.  The 
adult  is  a  small,  two-winged,  yellow  or  orange  colored 
fly  that  appears  in  the  wheat  fields  a  few  weeks  before 
harvest  time,  and  deposits  its  minute  eggs  in  the  crev- 
ices between  the  chaff  of  the  wheat  heads.  These  eggs 
soon  hatch  into  little  footless  maggots  that  attack  the 
young  germ  or  kernel,  blasting  it.  About  three  weeks 
later  they  become  full-gro^n ;  they  then  leave  the  heads 
and  enter  the  ground,  where  they  pupate.  There  is  but 
one  brood  each  year.  Besides  wheat,  the  midge  is  said 
to  breed  in  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  joossibly  grass. 

Remedies. — Early-maturing  grains  are  less  liable 
to  be  infested  by  this  insect  than  those  ripening  later. 
Consequently  farmers  in  regions  where  it  is  present  plant 
such  varieties  early,  with  general  high  culture.  Many 
of  the  insects  will  be  destroyed  by  the  deep  plowing  of 
the  infested  fields. 

INJURING   STORED   GRAIN 

The   Qrain   Weevil 

Calandra  granaria 

There  are  several  species  of  beetles  infesting  gran- 
aries, the  habits  and  life  histories  of  which,  however, 
are  quite  similar.  As  an  example  we  may  take  the  im- 
ported grain  weevil,  the  larva  of  which  is  represented  at 
Fig.  156,  a.  The  parent  insect  being  a  small,  dark-red- 
dish snout  beetle  [h),  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  grain. 
The  eggs  soon  hatch  into  legless  little  larvae  that  eat  out 


THE   GEAIK   WEEVIL  289 

the  substance  of  the  kernels,  and  become  fnll-s^rown  (a) 
in  a  few  weeks.  They  then  change  to  pupge  and  soon 
afterwards  again  transform  to  adult  beetles.  There  are 
several  broods  each  season.  All  sorts  of  stored  grain, 
such  as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  etc.,  are  attacked  by 
these  insects. 

Remedies. — Bisulphide  of  carbon  appears  to  be 
the  best  insecticide  to  use  against  grain  weevils.  The 
vapor  of  this  substance  is  poisonous  to  insect  life,  and 
as  it  is  heavier  than  air  it  will 
descend  between  the  kernels 
of  grain,  destroying  all  the 
weevils  which  it  reaches.  Dr. 
C.  V.  Riley  has  lately  called 
attention  to  the  following 
method  of  using  it,  premis- 
ing with  the  statement  that 
one  and  a  half  pounds  of  bi-  j  a 

sulphide  is  sufficient  for  eacli  fig.  \m.   grain  weevil.  «,  lar- 

ton  of  grain  :       ^'A  ball  of  tow         ^a;  b,  beetle.    Magnified. 

is  tied  to  a  stick  of  such  a  length  that  it  can  reach  the 
middle  of  the  vessel  containing  the  grain.  The  tow 
receives  the  charge  of  bisulphide  like  a  sponge,  and  is 
at  once  plunged  into  the  vessel  and  left  there,  the  mouth 
or  opening  of  the  vessel  then  being  tightly  closed. 
When  necessary,  the  stick  may  be  withdrawn  and  the 
charge  (of  1  ounce  to  100  pounds  of  grain)  may  be 
renewed.  The  action  of  carbon  bisulphide  lasts  in  ordi- 
nary cases  six  weeks,  after  which  period  a  fresh  charge 
is  required.  The  bisulphide  does  no  harm  to  the  grain 
as  regards  its  color,  smell,  or  cooking  properties,  and 
the  germinating  power  of  most  seeds  is  not  appreciably 
afPected,  provided  that  not  too  much  is  used,  nor  its 
action  continued  for  too  long  a  period." 


19 


290 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


6.  ,  —   'J^ 


mm 


« «  )' 


a  «\ 


FIG.      157.       LOllS     IXJUllED 
BY  GKAIN  MOTH. 


The  Angoumis  Grain 
Moth 

Gelechia  cerealella 

This  insect  derives  its  com- 
mon name  from  the  fact  that  it 
was  first  carefully  studied  in  the 
province  of  Angoumois,  France. 
Ifc  has  long  been  known  as  a  pest 
of  extraordinary  destructive  power, 
and  both  in  Europe  and  America 
has  caused  enormous  losses.  It  is 
more  injurious  in  the  warm  climate 
of  the  South  than  in  the  North. 
Mr.  F.  M.  Webster  has  summa- 
rized its  life  history  in  these  words  : 
**The  insect  passes  the  winter  in 
the  larval  state,  pupates  in  the 
spring,  and  the  moths  appear  in 
May  or  June.  These  pair  imme- 
diately and  deposit  their  eggs  on 
the  young  grains  of  the  new  crop 
^  in  the  field,  if  they  are  allowed  to 
\  escape,  or,  if  not,  on  the  grain  in 
the  bins  where  they  originated. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  from  four  to 
seven  days,  and  the  larvae  burrow 
into  the  grain  and  themselves 
transform  to  moths,  about  August, 
or  often  during  the  latter  part  of 
July.  These  moths  deposit  their 
eggs  after  the  manner  of  the  previ- 
ous brood,  and  the  larvae  from 
these,  nearly  if  not  quite  all,  reach 
maturity  during  the  fall  and  trans- 
form the  following  spring.      The 


THE  AKGOUMIS  GRAIN  MOTH  291 

number  of  broods  and  the  time  of  appearances  vary 
greatly  with  the  climate  and  season  ;  in  warm  countries 
broods  follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession  during  the 
entire  year."  The  easiest  way  of  killing  these  pests  is 
by  means  of  the  carbon  bisulphide  treatment  described 
in  connection  with  the  grain  weevil. 


INSECTS    AFFECTING   CLOVER 


INJURING  THE   ROOT 

The  Clover=root   Borer 

Hylastes  trifohi 

This  insect  was  originally  a  native  of  Europe,  from 
whence  it  was  introduced  into  America  not  very  many 

years  ago.  The  adult  is  a 
small,  brownish-black,  punc- 
tate beetle  (Fig.  158,  d),  not 
quite  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long. 
It  deposits  eggs  during  spring 
in  the  crown  of  the  clover 
plant,  four  or  five  eggs  being 
laid  on  each  plant.  Shortly 
afterwards  the  larvae  hatch 
and  burrow  downward  through 
the  larger  roots  (a,  a)  feeding 
upon  the  inner  substance,  and 
filling  tlie  galleries  behind 
them  with  their  sawdust-like 
excrement.  Late  in  summer 
the  larvae  become  fully  grown 
{h),  when  they  are  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  long,  with  a  whitish 
body  and  yellow  head.     They 

FIG.   158.     CLOVER-ROOT    BORER.  -J  ■J  >  .        .  *^ 

a,  infested  plant;  b,  larva;  c,  change  to    DUpCB  (c)  withiu  tllC 
pupa;  d,  beetle;  6,  c  rf,  magni-  ,  nn./x  t, 

fled.  tunneled  roots  (a,a),  and  short- 

ly afterwards  emerge  as  adult  beetles.     The  species  gen- 
erally passes  the  winter  in  the  beetle  state,  but  occasion- 

292 


THE  CLOVER  LEAF  BEETLE  293 

ally  hibernates  as  a  larva  or  pupa.  Tlie  injuries  of  this 
insect  are  frequently  very  serious,  whole  fields  of  clover 
often  being  destroyed.  Fortunately  its  ravages  are  as 
yet  confined  to  a  comparatively  few  States,  but  it  is 
likely  to  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  the  country. 

Remedies. — In  regions  infested  by  this  insect  it 
has  been  found  necessary  to  rotate  the  clover  crop  more 
frequently  than  before,  mowing  the  seeded  land  but 
once,  and  pasturing  or  plowing  under  the  abundant  sec- 
ond growth.  In  this  way  the  crop  is  turned  under 
before  the  injuries  of  the  borer  become  manifest.  Ac- 
cording to  many  of  the  most  successful  farmers,  this 
frequent  rotation  is  deemed  desirable  anyhow,  so  that 
the  insect,  in  their  opinion,  is  a  means  of  compelling 
the  adoption  of  an  improvement  in  farm  management. 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Clover=leaf   Beetle 

Fhyto7iomus  punctatus 

Like  so  many  other  of  our  injurious  insects,  the 
native  home  of  this  species  is  Europe,  from  whence  it 
was  probably  introduced  into  America  many  years  ago, 
although  it  has  only  been  seriously  destructive  here  for 
a  comparatively  few  years.  It  was  first  noticed  in  New 
York  State,  and  as  yet  has  not  spread  to  very  many  other 
States,  although  it  is  likely  to  do  so. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  who  first  w^orked  out  the  American 
life  history  of  this  species,  has  admirably  illustrated  this 
insect  and  its  injury  at  Fig.  159.  The  adult  (t, /,  k)  is 
a  dark-brown  snout  beetle,  not  quite  half  an  inch  long, 
which  feeds  greedily  upon  the  clover  leaves  at  night, 
remaining  concealed  among  the  rubbish  on  the  soil  sur- 
face during  the  day.  The  female  beetles  deposit  tlieir 
eggs  in  irrcgnlar  clusters  in  the  hollow  leaf  or  flower 
stems  or  between  the  leaf  bracts  at  the  base  of  the  plant. 


294  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

The  eggs  are  very  small,  oval,  smooth,  and  yellowish- 
green.  Each  female  is  capable  of  depositing  200  to  300 
eggs.  In  about  ten  days  the  larvae  hatch  and  begin 
feeding  on  the  leaves.  They  are  legless  little  grubs  of 
the  form  shown  at  c.  They  continue  feeding  and  grow- 
ing (J),  h,  h)  for  seven  or  eight  weeks,  increasing  much 


FIG.  159.  CLOVEK-LEAF  BEETLE.  6,  6,  h,  b,  luTvse  feeding;  /,  cooooii ; 
i,  beetle— all  natural  size;  a,  egg;  c,  young'i  larva;  f/,  meshes  of 
cocoon;  h,  pnpa;  k,j,  beetle,  back  and  side  views— magnified. 

in  size  and  molting  three  times  during  the  period. 
The  larvae,  like  the  beetles,  are  mostly  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  and  ordinarily  remain  concealed  during  the  day. 
The  full-grown  larvae  form  pale-yellow  cocoons,  consist- 
ing of  a  coarse  network  of  silk  (/,  g)  in  the  soil,  just 
beneath    the   surface.      They   pupate   (h)    within   these 


THE  CLOVER  SEED  MIDGE 


295 


cocoons,  and  a  month  later  emerge  as  beetles.  There  is 
apparently  but  one  brood  each  season,  although  it  is 
possible  that  there  may  sometimes  be  two.  During  the 
early  summer  months  (May  and  June)  it  is  mostly  in  its 
immature  stages.  It  ordinarily  hibernates  as  an  adult, 
but  may  also  occasionally  pass  the  winter  in  the  other 
stages  of  its  existence. 

Remedies. — The  only  remedy  yet  suggested  is 
that  of  plowing  under  infested  fields  during  May  or 
June,  thus  destroying  the  immature  stages. 

INJURING   THE   HEAD 

The  Clover=seed   flidge 

Cecidomyia  legumiiiicola 

The  clover-seed  midge  is  a  small  orange-colored 
maggot  that  develops  in  the  clover  heads  at  the  expense 
of  the  young  seeds.  It 
hatches  from  eggs  laid 
by  a  very  small,  two- 
winged  fly  (Fig.  160,  a), 
similar  to  the  Hessian 
fly  in  appearance.  The 
female  is  provided  with 
a  long  ovipositor  with 
which  she  pushes  her 
eggs  in  among  the  young 
flowers.  When  the  lar- 
va is  full-grown  (V)  it^^^ 
wriggles  its  way  out  of 
the  head  and  falls  to  the  ground,  where  at  or  just  be- 
neath the  soil  surface  it  forms  a  slight  cocoon,  within 
which  it  changes  to  the  pupal  state.  About  ten  days 
later  the  flies  emerge  to  lay  eggs  for  another  brood.  In 
the  N'orthern  States  there  are  two  broods  each  season, 
while  at  the  South  there  are  at  least  three,  and  possibly 


160.     CLOVER-SEED    MIDGE. 

h,  larva.    Magnified. 


296  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

more.  Clover  fields  infested  by  this  insect  are  at  once 
distinguished  by  the  unnatural  condition  of  the  heads  at 
time  of  blossoming ;  instead  of  being  red  with  bloom, 
the  heads  are  green  and  dwarfed  on  account  of  the  unde- 
yeloped  florets. 

Remedies. — The  best  preventive  of  the  injuries  of 
this  insect  yet  suggested  is  that  of  mowing  the  field 
about  the  middle  of  May  (in  the  latitude  of  Central  Ohio) 
when  the  green  heads  are  just  forming,  and  leaving  the 
partial  crop  thus  cut  on  the  ground  as  a  mulch  and  fer- 
tihzer.  A  new  crop  of  blossoms  is  then  produced,  which 
comes  between  the  regular  crops,  and  also  between  the 
two  broods  of  the  midge.  This  method  has  been  tried 
for  several  years  by  some  of  the  best  farmers  of  Ohio, 
with  excellent  results.  The  other  remedies  ordinarily 
recommended  are  early  catting  of  the  first  crop — about 
ten  days  earlier  than  usual — and  pasturing  the  fields  in 
spring.  But  there  are  serious  objections  to  both  these 
methods. 

INJURING  THE   STEM 

The  Clover=stem   Borer 

Langu ria  m ozardi 

This  insect  has  been  frequently  discussed  in  ento- 
mological literature  as  an  enemy  to  clover,  but  no  record 
has  yet  been  made  showing  that  it  ever  seriously  injures 
this  crop.  Until  lately  it  was  supposed  to  develop  exclu- 
sively in  clover,  but  recent  observations  indicate  that  it 
breeds  more  freely  in  other  plants,  especially  certain 
weeds  of  the  Composite  family,  than  in  clover.  The 
adult  insect  is  a  small,  elongate  beetle,  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  long,  with  the  thorax  yellowish-red,  and  the 
wing  covers  shining  bluish-black.  The  larva  is  a  slender, 
cylindrical  creature,  with  three  pairs  of  jointed  legs  on 
its  under  surface  near  the  head,  and  a  pair  of  pro-legs  at 


THE    CLOVER   HAY    WO  KM 


297 


the  posterior  extremity.     The  pupa  is  usually  of  a  yel- 
lowish color. 

The  eggs  of  this  insect  are  evidently  deposited  in  a 
great  variety  of  plants,  in  the  stems  of  which  the  larvae 
develop,  feeding  npon  the  pith  of  the  stalk.  So  long  as 
there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  wild  plants,  it  is  doubtful 
if  it  becomes  of  economic  importance. 


INJURING  THE    HAY 

The   Clover=hay   Worm 

Asopia  costatis 

Clover  hay  that  has  been  standing  in  the  mow  or  stack 
for  some  time  is  often  infested  by  numerous  small  brown 
worms  which  web  the  dried  stems  and  leaves  together 
and  feed  u^^on  them. 
This  is  the  insect 
named  above,  and 
its  various  stages  are 
represented,  natural 
size,  at  Fig.  161. 
The  adult  is  a  very 
pretty  little  purple 
and  golden  moth 
(5,  6)  which  de^^os- 
its  eggs  uj^on  such 
clover  hay  as  it  has  '*- 
access    to.       Some-„^^  ,^, 

FIGr.   Ibl. 

times  the  eggs  are 
deposited  in  the  clover  heads  in  the  field.  The  eggs 
soon  hatch  into  small  brown  worms  that  become  full- 
gi'own  (1,  2)  in  a  few  weeks.  They  then  spin  silken 
cocoons  (3)  within  which  they  change  to  chrysalids  (4), 
to  emerge  soon  after  as  adult  moths.  There  are  two  or 
more  broods  each  season. 


CLOVER-HAY  WORM.    1,  2,  larva;   3 
cocoon;  4,  pupa;  5,  6,  moth. 


298  INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 

Remedies. — It  will  readily  be  seen  that  these  insects 
are  more  likely  to  prove  troublesome  when  old  hay  is  left 
over  from  season  to  season  for  them  to  breed  in.  Conse- 
quently haymows  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  out  each 
summer,  and  new  stacks  should  not  be  put  on  old  founda- 
tions until  all  of  the  leavings  of  the  previous  season  are 
removed.  Hay  which  is  thickly  infested  by  the  worms 
should  be  burned. 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    GRASS 


INJURING  THE   ROOTS 

The  White  Grub 

Lachnosterna  fusca 

This  notorious  pest  is  the  young  or  larva  of  the 
common  May  beetle  or  June  bug.  Its  life  history  may 
be  briefly  summarized  as  follows :  The  brown  beetles, 
shown  at  3  and  4,  Fig.  16^,  appear  during  May  and  June, 


FIG.  162.    MAY  BEETLE.    1,  pupa;  2,  larva;  3  and  4,  adult. 

and  feed  at  night  upon  the  foliage  of  various  fruit  and 
shade  trees.  They  deposit  small  whitish  eggs  among 
the  roots  of  grass.  These  eggs  hatch  into  small,  brown- 
headed  grubs,  that  feed  upon  the  roots  about  them. 
They  continue  feeding  for  two  seasons,  when  they  are 

399 


300  INSECTS    AND   INSECTICIDES 

full-grown  and  resemble  2,  Fig.  162.  They  then  form 
an  oval  cell  in  the  soil  and  change  to  the  pupal  state,  and 
soon  after  transform  into  beetles.  The  change  to  the 
pupal  and  beetle  states  generally  occurs  in  fall,  the  beetles 
remaining  in  the  ground  until  the  following  spring,  so 
that  they  are  often  turned  up  during  late  fall  or  early 
spring  plowing. 

Remedies. — This  insect  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
pests  to  fight  of  its  class.  It  breeds  especially  in  grass 
lands,  and  often  ruins  pastures  and  meadows,  while  crops 
planted  on  sod  land  are  very  frequently  destroyed.  There 
is  much  evidence  to  prove  that  with  high  farming  and 
short  rotations  its  injuries  may  largely  be  prevented. 
The  parent  beetles  may  be  destroyed  by  spraying  the 
trees  on  which  they  feed  with  London  purple  or  Paris 
green.  It  will  often  pay,  when  land  infested  by  these 
grubs  is  to  be  planted  to  strawberries  or  other  crops 
which  they  are  liable  to  injure,  to  have  boys  follow  the 
plow  and  collect  the  grubs  as  they  appear  in  the  furrow. 
In  this  way  a  large  amount  of  damage  can  frequently  be 
prevented  at  very  slight  expense.  The  grubs  in  infested 
meadows  may  be  destroyed  by  turning  swine  in  the  field. 

The   rieadow  flaggot 

Tipula  hicarnea 

Meadows  are  sometimes  injured  by  large,  dark- 
colored,  legless  grubs  of  the  form  represented  at  Fig. 
163,  a,  which  feed  upon  the  roots  just  beneath  the 
surface.  These  are  the  larvae  of  crane  flies,  the  large 
two-winged  insect  represented  natural  size  at  c  of  the 
figure.  The  adults  appear  in  spring,  often  in  great 
numbers,  and  deposit  numerous  eggs  in  grass  lands.  In 
a  short  time  these  eggs  hatch  into  small  blackish  grubs 
that  feed  upon  the  roots  of  grasses  and  other  plants. 
They  continue  feeding  for  some  time  before  becoming 


THE   MEADOW   MAGGOT 


301 


full-grown, — their  food  including  much  decaying  vegeta- 
tion as  well  as  the  living  roots, — when  they  are  about  an 
inch  long,  and  of  a  dirty  grayish-black  color.  They  now 
change  to  pupae,  one  of  which  is  represented  at  h,  and 
about  a  fortnight  later  the  flies  emerge  with  their  long 
legs  and  slender  wings.  The  larvae  are  commonly  called 
leather  jackets  or  meadow  maggots.     In  England  the 


FIG.  163.    CRANE  FLY.    «,  larva;  h,  pupa;  c,  adult. 


crane  flies  are  called  daddy  longlegs,  although  in  this 
country  this  name  is  usually  applied  to  the  harvest 
spiders,  a  common  species  of  which  is  represented  at 
Plate  XIV  (p.  26G).  There  are  a  great  many  species  of 
these  crane  flies  in  America,  and  the  later  stages  of  one 


3<)2 


INSECTS   AKD   INSECTICIDES 


of  the  largest  of  them  are  represented  in  the  accompany- 
ing figure. 

Remedies. — In  America  these  insects  rarely  become 
sufficiently  injurious  to  require  remedial  treatment. 
When  they  do,  the  most  successful  plan  yet  tried  is  that 
of  driving  a  flock  of  sheep  or  herd  of  swine  over  the  field 
to  kill  the  larvae  by  their  trampling. 

INJURING  THE   LEAVES 

The  Army  Worm 

Leucania  unipuncta 

This  is  one  of  the  most  noted  insect  enemies  of 
American  agriculture.     It  occasionally  does  great  damage 

to  a  variety  of  cereal 
and  forage  crops,  al- 
though during  recent 
years  its  irruptions  ap- 
pear to  be  growing  less 
frequent.  The  worm 
itself  is  closely  related 
to  the  cutworms,  to 
which  it  is  similar  in 
life  history  and  habits. 
It  hatches  from  eggs  laid 
by  a  handsome  brown 
moth  (Fig.  164,  a),  be- 
tween the  sheaths  of 
grass  blades.  The 
FIG.  164.  ARMY  WORM.  a,inoth;  6,  larva- youug  larvsB  hatch  in  a 
week  or  ten  days,  and  are  at  first  green,  but  later  become 
ornamented  with  longitudinal  stripes  of  yellow,  gray, 
and  black  {h).  The  larva  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  grass, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  etc.,  and  becomes  full-grown  in  about 
a  month  from  the  time  of  hatching.  Ordinarily  it  re- 
mains concealed  about  the  bases  of  grass  or  grain,  feed- 


THE   ARMY  WORM  303 

ing  there  unnoticed,  but  occasionally  the  laryae  become 
so  numerous  that  they  exhaust  their  food  supplies,  and 
then  they  are  forced  to  seek  other  feeding  grounds.  At 
such  times  the  "  armies "  appear,  and  moving  in  solid 
masses  sweep  all  grasses  and  cereals  before  them.  The 
full-grown  larvae  enter  the  ground  and  pupate  in  earthen 
cells,  emerging  a  fortnight  later  as  moths.  In  southern 
latitudes  there  are  two  or  three  broods  each  season,  while 
at  the  North  there  are  one  or  two.  The  insect  hiber- 
nates both  as  a  moth  and  larva,  although  the  latter 
doubtless  predominates. 

The  army  worm  has  a  great  many  enemies  with 
which  to  contend.  It  is  preyed  upon  by  birds,  as  well 
as  by  predaceous  and  parasitic  insects,  and  is  subject  to 
the  attacks  of  certain  bacterial  diseases  that  often  sweep 
the  larvae  off  by  millions.  These  various  natural  enemies 
are  the  chief  means  of  keeping  the  pest  in  check. 

Remedies. — The  burning  of  pastures  and  meadows 
during  fall,  winter,  or  spring,  especially  the  latter,  is 
very  often  recommended  as  a  remedy  for  the  army  worm, 
and  large  numbers  of  the  larvae  may  thus  be  destroyed. 
The  migration  of  the  worms  from  field  to  field  may  be 
prevented  by  plowing  deep  furrows  with  the  perpen- 
dicular sides  away  from  the  worms,  or  by  setting  fence 
boards  on  edge,  leaning  a  little  toward  the  worms,  and 
smearing  the  upper  edge  with  coal  tar.  With  the 
improved  appliances  for  distributing  Paris  green  and 
London  purple  now  in  use,  these  poisons  will  no  doubt 
be  more  largely  used  in  suppressing  future  outbreaks  of 
these  worms  than  in  the  past.  It  is  quite  probable  also 
that  we  may  before  long  be  able  to  fight  them  by  means 
of  the  germs  of  the  contagious  diseases  to  which  they  are 
subject. 


304  ii;rsECTS  and  insecticides 

Grasshoppers 

AcrididcB 

The  family  of  locusts  or  sliort-liorned  grasshoppers 
— commonly  called  simply  grasshoppers — contains  many 
species  which  are  more  or  less  injurious  in  pastures  and 
meadows.  The  hind  legs  of  these  insects  are  long  and 
strong,  enabling  them  to  make  tiie  leaps  or  hops  which 
has  given  them  their  common  name.  The  largest  species 
of  this  family  inhabiting  the  United  States  is  the  bird 
grasshopper  or  American  locust  {Acridium  americanum), 
represented  natural  size  at  Fig.  165.  At  a  little  distance, 
when  flying,  this  handsome  insect  might  easily  be  mis- 


FIG.  1G5.     BIRD  GRASSHOPPER  OR  AMERICAN  LOCUST. 

taken  for  a  small  bird.  It  inhabits  the  Southern  States, 
but  occurs  rather  commonly  as  far  north  as  the  fortieth 
degree  of  latitude. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  locust  or  Western  grasshopj^er 
{Melmioplus  spretus)  is  the  most  destructiye  American 
insect  of  this  family.  Its  stages  of  growth  are  shown  at 
Fig.  1C6.  The  eggs  are  laid  during  the  late  summer  or 
early  autumn  months,  in  masses  of  twenty  or  thirty  each, 
in  the  soil  just  below  the  surface.  They  remain  over 
winter  in  this  condition,  hatching  in  spring  into  wingless 
little  hoppers  as  shown  at  a,  a.  They  gradually  increase 
in  size,  and  cast  their  skins  after  a  short  time,  when  they 


GRASSHOPPEKS 


305 


resemble  l.  They  acquire  wing  pads  in  the  stage  imme- 
diately preceding  that  of  the  adult,  as  shown  at  c,  and 
finally  become  full-fledged  {d).  They  are  active  during 
their  entire  existence.  The  native  home  of  this  species 
is  in  the  high  and  dry  table-lands  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
regions,  where  it  breeds  year  after  year.  Occasionally  it 
becomes  so  abundant  in  these  regions  that  the  food 
supply  is  exhausted,  and  it  is  compelled  to  seek  by  flight 
green  pastures.  It  is  at  such  times  that  these  insects 
migrate  in  vast  swarms  to  the  fertile  fields  of  the  Missis- 
sippi valley,  destroying  every  vestige  of  greenness  in 
their  path.  Fortunately, 
however,  they  are  unable 
to  breed  permanently  at 
these  lower  levels,  and 
although  eggs  are  depos- 
ited by  these  invading 
hordes,  the  young  hoppers 
hatched  from  them  seldom 
attain  a  healthy  develop- 
ment. 

The  commonest  grass- 
hopper in  the  Northern  fig 
States  is  called  the  red- 
legged  locust  {Melanoplus  fejmir-ruhrum).  It  is  closely 
allied  and  very  similar  to  the  Rocky  Mountain  locust. 
It  frequently  becomes  seriously  destructive  in  restricted 
localities,  but  never  does  the  widespread  damage  of  its 
Western  congener.  The  life  history  of  this  species  has 
been  summarized  by  Professor  S.  A.  Forbes  as  follows  : 
*^ These  locusts  are  single-brooded;  they  hibernate  in 
the  Qgg,  hatching  in  midsummer ;  pass  through  five  suc- 
cessive molts,  gaining  their  full  size,  and  with  tliis  their 
wings,  in  August,  and  commence  to  lay  eggs  in  September. 
The  females  deposit  these  in  the  eartli,  boring  cylindrical 
holes  for  the  purpose  with  the  abdomen,  and  laying  the 


166.     ROCKY    MOUNTAIN    LOCUST. 

young   nymphs;    c,  fiiUy    de- 
veloped nymph  or  pupa;  d,  adult. 


306  I15"SECTS   Aiq"D   IN'SECTICIDES 

eggs  in  a  symmetrical  mass  within  the  burrow  thus 
formed.  With  the  egg  mass  is  extruded  a  quantity  of 
mucus,  which  soon  hardens  and  forms  a  sort  of  case  or 
matrix,  in  which  the  eggs  are  imbedded.  The  upper 
part  of  the  hole  is  also  filled  with  this  mucus.  The  fe- 
male is  commonly  busied  from  two  to  four  or  five  hours 
in  the  deposit  of  a  single  egg  mass,  and  lays,  ordinarily, 
from  two  to  four  such  masses  in  different  holes,  upon 
different  days,  commencing  the  process  of  ovi position, 
as  a  rule,  about  a  month  after  she  has  acquired  her 
wings.  After  this  ^^rocess  is  completed  the  exhausted 
females  soon  perish.  They  select  by  preference,  for 
oviposition,  hard  and  dry  ground,  roadsides  and  pastures 
being  especially  favorite  localities.  Meadows  and  pas- 
tures are  commonly  resorted  to  by  the  mature  females, 
especially  the  latter,  as  the  eggs  seem  not  to  be  laid 
ordinarily  on  ground  covered  by  luxuriant  vegetation. 
I  have  never  known  them  deposited  in  cultivated  earth. 

''The  food  habits  of  these  locusts  are  extremely 
simple,  and  consist  in  eating  nearly  everything  that 
comes  in  their  way.  They  are  quiet  at  night,  and  indeed, 
as  they  mature,  they  select  elevated  positions  as  roosts, 
climbing  to  the  tops  of  stems  of  grass  in  meadows,  to 
the  tassels  of  the  stalks  in  cornfields,  and  even  deserting 
fields  of  low  herbage  if  they  can  find  more  elevated  roost- 
ing points  near  by.  When  very  abundant,  and  when  the 
weather  continues  dry,  they  occasionally  swarm  like  the 
Rocky  Mountain  locust,  but  rarely  flying  continuously 
to  any  great  distance,  or  indeed  taking  any  definite 
course." 

Fortunately  there  are  a  considerable  number  of 
species  of  animals  that  depend,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
upon  grasshoppers  for  subsistence.  Some  of  these  are 
predaceous,  others  parasitic,  but  all  combine  in  keeping 
the  pests  in  check.  Prominent  among  those  efficient  in 
this  work  are  the  species  that  live  upon  or  within  the 


GRASSHOPPERS  307 

eggs  of  the  locusts,  as  the  latter  exist  in  that  state  for 
the  longest  period  of  their  lives,  and  are  also  then  the 
most  helpless  and  susceptible  to  injury.  The  common 
blister  beetles  {Epiccmta)  live,  so  far  as  known,  in  their 
larval  state,  exclusively  upon  the  eggs  of  locusts,  and  are 
thus  of  immense  benefit  to  man.  Small  red  mites,  which 
are  frequently  seen  attached  to  the  bodies  of  the  mature 
locusts,  are  also  of  benefit,  in  that  while  young  they  suck 
the  life  juices  of  the  locusts,  and  later,  punctnre  their 
eggs  and  extract  the  contents.  The  larvae  of  the  common 
black  ground  beetles  [Carahidcs),  which  are  to  a  great 
extent  carnivorous,  also  feed  upon  the  eggs,  and,  as  they 
are  everywhere  abundant,  contribute  not  a  little  to  lessen- 
ing their  numbers.  Certain  species  of  two-winged  flies 
(Di^jtera)  are  also  known  to  be  parasitic  upon  the  eggs 
as  well  as  upon  the  adults. 

Remedies. — The  time  when  grasshoppers  can  most 
successfully  be  fought  is  when  they  are  either  in  the  egg 
or  young  larval  states.  Shallow  plowing  and  harrowing 
during  autumn  of  fields  where  they  are  deposited,  will 
break  up  many  of  the  egg  pods,  exposing  them  to  enemies 
and  the  weather.  The  methods  by  which  3'oung  locusts 
may  be  destroyed  have  been  classified  by  the  United 
States  Entomological  Commission  as  follows  :  (1)  burn- 
ing, (2)  crushing,  (3)  trapping,  (4)  catching,  (5)  use 
of  destructive  agents.  By  the  first  method  old  hay 
or  straw  is  scattered  ^^over  and  around  the  field_in  heaps 
and  w^indrows,  into  which  the  locusts  for  some  time  after 
they  hatch  may  be  driven  and  burned."  AYhen  the 
weather  is  cold  and  damp  the  locusts  w^ill  seek  the  shelter 
of  the  hay  or  straw,  and  may  easily  be  burned  before 
escaping.  This  method  is  well  adapted  to  upland  pas- 
tures, where  the  eggs  are  usually  deposited  in  the  greatest 
numbers. 

For  the  successful  application  of  the  second  method 
mentioned  above,  it  is  necessary  that  the  surface  of  the 


308  INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 

fields  on  wliicli  it  is  applied  should  be  smooth  and  hard. 
Here,  again,  the  upland  i^astures  present  unusually  favor- 
able opportunities  for  successful  work.  Dr.  Riley  states  : 
''Where  the  surface  of  the  ground  presents  this  charac- 
ter, heavy  rolling  can  be  successfully  employed,  especi- 
ally in  the  mornings  and  evenings  of  the  first  eight 
or  ten  days  after  the  newly  hatched  young  have  made 
their  appearance,  as  they  are  generally  sluggish  during 
these  times,  and  huddle  together  until  after  sunrise." 

The  third  head  given  above,  that  of  trapping, 
includes  ditching,  trenching,  and  the  use  of  pans  covered 
with  coal  oil,  or  coal  tar.  In  the  first  two  processes, 
ditches  or  trenches  are  dug  in  favorable  situations,  into 
which  the  young  insects  are  driven.  Probably  the  use 
of  pans  covered  with  coal  oil  will  be  as  simple  and  advis- 
able a  method,  unless  we  except  that  of  rolling,  as  can 
be  employed  in  most  infested  districts.  A  small  pan 
which  is  well  adapted  for  the  purpose  is  described  as 
follows  :  ''A  good  and  cheap  pan  is  made  of  ordinary 
sheet  iron  eight  feet  long,  eleven  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  turned  up  a  foot  high  at  the  back  and  an  inch 
high  at  the  front.  A  runner  at  each  end,  extending 
some  distance  behind,  and  a  cord  extending  to  each  front 
corner,  comjoletes  the  pan,  at  a  cost  of  about  $1.50." 
The  upper  surface  of  the  bottom  is  wet  with  kerosene, 
and  the  pans  are  pnlled  rapidly  through  the  field  by 
boys  who  take  hold  of  the  ropes. 

The  use  of  destructive  agents,  such  as  London  purj^le, 
Paris  green,  and  the  like,  has  not  been  attended  with 
any  very  great  success  when  applied  on  a  large  scale. 
But  for  limited  areas,  doubtless  a  great  many  of  the 
locusts  may  thns  be  easily  destroyed.  A  mixture  which 
has  been  successfully  employed  consists  of  ''arsenic, 
sugar,  bran,  and  water,  the  proportions  being  one  part, 
by  weight,  of  arsenic,  one  of  sugar,  and  five  of  bran,  to 
which  is  added  a  certain  quantity  of  water.     The  arsenic 


GRASSHOPPERS  309 

and  bran  are  first  mixed  together,  then  the  sugar  is 
dissolved  in  water  and  added  to  the  bran  and  arsenic, 
after  which  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  is  added  to 
thoroughly  wet  the  mixture.  About  a  teaspoonful  of 
this  mixture  is  thrown  upon  the  ground  at  the  base  of 
each  tree  or  vine  (in  gardens  or  orchards)  and  left  to  do 
its  work.  The  poison  works  slowly,  seldom  killing  its 
victim  within  eight  or  ten  hours  after  it  has  been  eaten." 


INSECT  Pests  of  domestic  Animals 

AND  THE  HOUSEHOLD 


PLATE  XVI.— THE  SCREW  WORM. 


INSECTS    AFFECTING    DOMESTIC 
ANIMALS 


The  Screw   Worm 

.  Comjjsomyia  viacellaria 

The  screw  worm,  so  far  as  its  injuries  are  concerned, 
is  a  Southern  insect.  Until  recently  little  or  no  damage 
from  it  had  been  rei)orted  outside  of  Texas,  but  lately  it 
has  been  injurious  in  Louisiana,  Mississippi,  and  otiier 
Southern  States.  The  fly,  however,  occurs  throughout 
America  '^from  Canada  to  Patagonia,"  probably  breeding 
in  northern  latitudes  in  decaying  animal  and  vegetable 
matter.  Although  in  the  South  cattle  are  especially 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  this  insect,  it  is  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  them,  for  horses,  mules,  hogs,  sheep,  dogs,  and 
in  some  recorded  cases  even  men,  suffer  on  account  of  it. 

^^In  all  animals  alike,"  according  to  Dr.  M.  Francis, 
who  has  studied  this  insect  carefully,  ^'^the  eggs,  after 
being  laid  by  the  fly,  hatch  into  larvae,  or  so-called 
'worms.'  The  exact  length  of  time  this  requires  seems 
to  vary  with  circumstances.  My  present  opinion  is  that 
if  the  eggs  are  laid  in  a  moist  place  and  on  a  warm  day, 
it  requires  less  than  one  hour ;  whereas  if  laid  in  a  dry 
place,  they  seem  to  dry  up  and  lose  their  vitality.  The 
young  larvae,  when  first  hatched,  are  small  and  easily 
overlooked.  If  they  are  hatched  on  the  surface  in  a  drop 
of  blood  from  a  ruptured  tick,  for  instance,  they  attempt 
to  perforate  the  skin,  and  if  hatched  in  wounds  they  at 
once  become  buri'ed  out  of  sight.     They  seem  to  attach 

313 


314  li^SECTS   AifD   Il!fSECTICIDES 

themselves  by  their  heads,  and  burrow  their  way  under 
the  skin,  completely  devouring  the  soft  flesh.  Occasion- 
ally a  few  are  seen  moving  from  one  place  to  another, 
but  usually  they  remain  lixed  at  one  point.  The  worms 
grow  steadily  in  size,  and  the  hole  in  tlie  flesh  becomes 
larger  every  day.  Sometimes  the  worm  makes  tunnels, 
but  not  to  any  depth  ;  they  usually  stay  on  the  surface. 
They  evidently  produce  considerable  irritation,  for  the 
part  is  always  swollen  and  constantly  bleeding.  This 
swollen,  gaping  appearance  of  the  wounds,  together  with 
the  constant  discharge  of  blood,  are  characteristic  of  the 
presence  of  Avorms.  It  seems  to  require  about  a  week 
for  the  worms  to  become  fully  grown.  At  tliat  time  they 
are  about  five-eighths  to  six-eighths  of  an  inch  long. 
They  then  leave  the  sore  and  go  into  the  ground,  where 
they  pass  the  pupal  state,  and  hatch  out  as  flies  in  from 
nine  to  twelve  days." 

In  the  accompanying  plate  (XVI)  the  eggs  ar^  shown 
at  a  and  h,  the  first  representing  a  single  Qgg,  greatly 
enlarged,  and  the  second  a  bunch  of  eggs,  also  enlarged  ; 
the  larva  is  represented  at  c,  and  the  puparium  at  d  and 
e,  the  former  showing  the  mode  of  exit  of  the  fly,  which 
is  represented  at/ and  ^. 

The  Q^^g  of  this  insect  is  one-twenty-fifth  inch  long, 
whitish,  and  cylindrical,  with  a  longitudinal  ridge  on 
one  side.  The  full-grown  larva  is  one-fifth  inch  long  by 
one-sixth  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  a  whitish,  footless 
grub,  with  transverse  rows  of  stiff,  black  bristles  at  each 
articulation.  The  puparium  is  brown,  and  two-fifths 
inch  long.  The  imago  is  described  as  follows  :  Length, 
two-fifths  inch ;  wing  expanse,  four-fifths  inch  ;  color, 
metallic  bluish-green,  with  golden  reflections ;  thorax, 
with  three  black,  longitudinal  stripes ;  head,  except 
central  portion  of  eyes,  yellow  ;  legs,  black  ;  wing  veins, 
black ;  wings,  transparent,  except  near  base,  where  they 
are  slightly  cloaded ;  entire  body  furnished  with  long. 


THE    OX    WAKBLE   OK    HEEL    ELY 


315 


black,  spinose  hairs ;  proboscis  of  medium  length,  with 
dilated  tip. 

Remedies. — According  to  Dr.  Francis,  the  treat- 
ment usually  employed  consists  simply  of  killing  the 
larva3  with  cresylic  ointment,  calomel,  chloroform,  or 
carbolic  acid.  Inasmucli  as  the  insect  is  able  to  develop 
freely  in  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  it  is 
important,  as  a  preventive  measure,  that  all  refuse  be 
promptly  buried  or  burned. 

The  Ox=warble  or   Heel    Fly 

Hyijoderma  lineata 

During  the  sjoring  and  early  summer  one  may  often 
find  along  the  middle  of  the  backs  of  cattle,  just  beneath 
the  skin,  a  hard  lump,  usually  having  in  the  center  an 


FIG.  167.    AN  OX  WAKBLE.    a,  larva, ;  h,  pupa ;  c,  fly ;  d,  section  of  warble. 

opening,  which  sometimes  is  more  or  less  of  a  running 
sore.  These  are  the  "warbles,"  and  the  lump  is  caused 
by  the  presence  of  a  whitish  or  grayish  maggot  of  the 
form  represented  at  a.  Fig.  167,  which  re]3resents  a  species 
closely  related  to  the  one  here  considered.     The  life 


316 


IlTSECTb    AND   INSECTICIDES 


history  of  this  insect  is  remarkable.  The  eggs  are  laid 
in  sirring  by  the  flies  on '  the  hairs  of  cattle,  especially  on 
the  hinder  portion  of  the  body  and  about  the  heels. 
^•The  cattle  licking  themselves  remove  the  eggs  and 
hairs,  for  this  is  the  shedding  season.  The  eggs  hatch 
by  virtue  of  the  warmth  of  the  mouth,  and  the  newly 
hatched  larva,  provided  with  a  number  of  spinous  points 
and  anal  hooks,  penetrates  through  the  walls  of  the 
oesophagus.     It  then  molts,  looses  the  spines,  and  becomes 

almost  entirely  smooth 
with  the  exception  of  some 
very  minute  spines  around 
the  anal  portion.  Its  skin 
is  underlaid  with  strong 
muscular  bands,  fitting  it 
for  pushing  its  way 
through  the  tissues.  In 
this  stage  its  development 
is  very  slow,  and  it  grad- 
ually works  its  way  through 
the  subcutaneous  tissue, 
traveling  for  nine  or  ten 
months,  until  it  has 
reached  a  favorable  point 

FIG.  108.     AMERICAN  OX-WAKBLE  FLY.  ,,  ,         ,  .      ^  .. 

Magnified.  upou   the  back,  where   it 

molts  again,  assuming  the  familiar,  spiny  appearance  of 
tlie  mature  larva,  becomes  encysted  by  virtue  of  the 
inflammation  of  the  tissue,  and  from  this  inflammation 
and  from  its  own  growth  forms  a  decided  lump  under 
the  skin.  After  another  molt  the  skin  of  the  animal  is 
penetrated,  and  eventually  the  larva  issues  through  this 
hole  and  falls  to  the  ground  to  transform  to  the  pupa."* 
In  about  a  month  it  emerges  as  an  adult  fly  (Fig.  168). 
The  ulceration  caused  by  these  larvae  is  not  only  dis- 


^0.  V.  miey 


THE   OX   WARBLE    OR   HEEL   FLT  317 

tressing  to  the  animal,  but  injures  the  hide  and  beef, 
and,  in  the  case  of  dairy  animals,  lessens  the  quantity 
of  milk  produced. 

The  beef  beneath  these  warbles  has  a  peculiar,  dis- 
eased, sickening  appearance,  and  is  commonly  called 
'kicked  beef."  Such  beef  always  commands  a  lower 
price  than  that  which  is  unaffected. 

Remedies. — Every  warble  maggot  destroyed  befoj'e 
it  escai3es  to  the  ground  to  pupate,  means  that  one 
less  fly  will  be  present  to  lay  eggs  for  the  coming 
brood.  This  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind,  for 
from  it  the  conclusion  is  obvious  that  if  all  the  maggots 
present  in  the  backs  of  cattle  of  a  given  neighborhood 
are  killed,  the  egg-laying  brood  of  flies  will  be  extermi- 
nated, aud  there  will  be  no  injury  the  next  season. 
There  is  perhaps  no  other  important  injurious  insect 
whose  numbers  can  be  so  readily  controlled ;  and  the 
experience  of  English  farmers  shows  that  by  concerted 
action  and  the  continuation  of  the  treatment,  the  amount 
of  warble  attack  may  be  very  rapidly  lessened. 

Perhaps  the  simplest  remedy  is  to  squeeze  the 
maggots  out  of  the  warbles.  When  they  are  nearly  full- 
grown  this  can  be  done  with  little  trouble.  A  pair  of 
medium  sized  forceps  is  often  helpful  in  removing  them. 

Another  simple  remedy  is  to  apply  to  the  opening  a 
little  oil  or  grease,  which  closes  the  breathing  pores  of 
the  maggot,  thus  causing  it  to  die.  Kerosene  applied  to 
the  warbles  either  in  autumn,  winter  or  spring  also 
destroys  them,  as  does  indeed  the  application  of  almost  any 
oily  or  fatty  substance.  Train  oil  or  fish  oil  is  especially 
commended  in  England.  Dr.  C.  V.  Eiley  says  that 
smearing  the  animals'  backs  with  this  substance  ^Ms  the 
simplest  and  easiest  method  of  destroying  the  warbles, 
which  it  does  by  closing  the  breathing  pores  on  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  body.  The  destruction  of  the  larvje  in 
this  way  may  be  effected  by  one  or  two  applications  in 


318  IN-SECTS   AITD   INSECTICIDES 

autumn,  aud  is  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  con- 
trolling the  pest." 

Cattle   Lice 

There  are  three  species  of  lice  infesting  cattle.  Two 
of  these  belong  to  the  group  of  sucking  lice  and  the  third 
is  one  of  the  biting  lice.  They  are  called  (1)  the  short- 
nosed  ox  louse,  (2)  the  long-nosed  ox  louse,  and  (3)  the 
bitiug  ox  louse. 

Tlie  short-nosed  ox  louse  (Hcematopinus  euryster- 
niis)  is  represented  considerably  magnified  at  Fig.  169, 
a.  Full-grown  females  of  this  species  are  one-sixth  of 
an  inch  long,  and  the  males  are  somewhat  smaller.     The 

beak  or  rostrum   is   provided 
with  little  hooks  by  v/hich  it 
may  be  firmly  attached  to  the 
,    skiu,  and  within  these  hooks 
A  there    is    a    slender    sucking 
tube  having  a  piercing  extrem- 
ity which    the   insect  pushes 
169.    LICE,    ah,  sucking  i-j^^Qugij  the  skiu  of  its  host, 

_.-iice;  c,   biting  horse  louse.  &  ' 

Magnified.  arirl   sucks   tlic    blood.      The 

eggs  are  glued  to  the  haii*s  of  the  cattle,  and  the  young 
lice  do  not  differ  essentially  in  appearance  from  the  adults, 
except,  of  course,  in  size.  These  insects  generally  infest 
the  neck  and  shoulders  of  cattle. 

The  long-nosed  ox  louse  {Hmmatopinus  vititU)  is 
represented  magnified  at  Fig.  169,  h.  As  will  be  seen,, 
it  difl:ers  matei'ially  in  appearance  from  the  other  species, 
being  at  once  distinguished  by  its  longer  and  more  slen- 
der body.  It  is  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and 
obtains  its  food  by  suction. 

An  idea  of  the  form  of  the  biting  ox  louse  (Trich- 
odedes  scalmHs)  may  be  obtained  from  Fig.  169,  c,  which 
represents  a  closely  related  insect  infesting  horses.  This 
species  differs  also  in  color  from  the  sucking  cattle  lice, 
being  of  a  reddish  hue.     Its  eggs  are  glued  to  the  hairs 


THE   HORN   FLY  319 

of  the  cattle.     It  is  very  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  where  domestic  cattle  are  found. 

Remedies. — The  best  method  of  destroying  lice  on 
cattle  and  other  domestic  animals  is  to  apply  a  thoroughly 
prei^ared  emulsion  of  kerosene  and  soap,  made  as  directed 
in  the  Introduction  (page  43).  If  this  is  well  made  it 
can  be  applied  to  cattle  and  horses,  hogs  and  sheep,  with 
no  danger  of  injury  to  them,  wdiile  it  will  destroy  all  the 
lice  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Professor  C.  P. 
Gillette,  who  first  gave  this  method  a  thorough  trial, 
recommends  applying  it  with  a  force  pump  and  sj^ray 
nozzle,  rubbing  it  in  thoroughly  with  the  finger  tips  at 
the  same  time.  It  kills  the  lice  and  leaves  the  hair  of 
the  animal  in  good  condition.  The  lice  may  also  be 
destroyed  by  treating  with  a  strong  tobacco  decoction — a 
pound  of  tobacco  being  boiled  in  two  gallons  of  water — 
or  a  wash  of  carbolic-acid  soap.  But  the  first-named 
remedy  is  best. 

The   Horn   Fly 

Hosmatohia  serrata 

This  is  an  imported  insect  which  has  lately  attracted 
much  attention  in  the  Eastern  States.     It  is  called  the 


FIG.  170.    a,  horn  fly.  magnified;  6,  cow  horn  with  band  of  resting  flies, 
reduced. 

horn  fly  because  of  the  peculiar  habit  the  flies  have  of 
gathering  in  clusters  ui)on  the  base  of  the  horn,  as  repre- 


320  IN-SECTS   AND   IKSECTICIDES 

sented  in  Fig.  170,  b.  They  light  here  to  avoid  being 
disturbed  bv  the  heads  or  tails  of  the  cattle,  but  do  not 
pierce  the  horn  or  do  any  serious  injury  to  it.  On  the 
body,  however,  where  they  light  when  feeding,  they 
insert  their  beaks  into  the  skin,  injecting  at  the  same 
time  a  little  poisonous  secretion  which  causes  irritation 
and  inflammation,  and  a  flow  of  blood  to  the  spot.  This 
blood  is  then  sucked  into  the  stomach  of  the  fly.  Cows 
thus  attacked  become  restless  and  irritable,  and,  if  the 
flies  are  very  numerous,  they  lose  flesh  and  give  less 
milk. 

The  eggs  of  the  horn  fly  are  deposited  in  freshly 
dropped  cow  dung  in  which  the  larvae  develop,  and 
pupate  in  the  soil  beneath.  There.are  four  or  five  broods 
each  season.  During  hot  weather  the  transformations 
of  the  insect — from  egg  to  imago — may  be  completed 
within  two  weeks. 

Remedies. — Two  classes  of  preventives  may  be 
used  against  this  insect.  The  injuries  to  cattle  may  be 
prevented  by  applying  to  their  bodies,  by  means  of  a 
sponge,  fish  oil  to  which  has  been  added  a  little  carbolic 
acid.  Only  the  tips  of  the  hairs  need  be  wet,  and  the 
application  should  be  repeated  every  four  or  five  days. 
This  will  keep  the  flies  ofl  the  animals  though  it  does 
not  kill  them.  They  may  be  killed,  however,  by  the  use 
of  tobacco  powder,  dusted  on  the  cattle,  especially  on 
the  back,  tail,  neck,  and  base  of  the  horns.  Professor 
J.  B.  Smith  recommends  the  use  of  the  carbolated  fish 
oil  on  the  belly,  udder,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  where 
the  tobacco  cannot  well  be  applied,  and  the  apj)lication 
of  the  powder  to  the  other  parts.  The  larvae  also  may 
be  destroyed  by  spreading  out  the  cow  droppings  each 
morning,  so  that  they  will  dry  up,  and  thus  prevent  the 
development  of  the  eggs  or  maggots,  or  by  mixing  plaster 
with  the  manure  in  the  stable  or  field. 


LICE   INFESTING   HOESES  321 

Lice   Infesting   Horses 

Three  species  of  lice  infest  the  horse.  The  first  is 
the  sucking  horse  louse  (HcBmatopinus  asini)  which  is 
represented,  considerably  magnified,  at  Fig.  171,  a.  It 
is  somewhat  similar  to  the  sucking  ox  louse,  to  which  it 
is  closely  related,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  that 
species  by  the  shape  of  the  head.  It  is  the  rarest  of  the 
three  species  infesting  the  horse,  the  next  commonest 
one  being  the  rarer  biting  horse  louse  {Trichodectes 
lyilosus)  represented  at  Fig.  171,  h,  which,  as  its  name 
indicates,  is  less  abundant  than  the 
third  species — the  common  biting 
horse  louse  {Trichoclectes  imrum- 
pilosus),  which  is  shown  at  Fig. 
169,  c.  This  last  is  the  most  abun- 
dant and  annoying,  and  is  espe- 
cially liable  to  infest  colts  or  horses 
that  have  been  in  pasture  for  some 
"^^  time.     It  occurs  mostly  about  the 

r,  sncking  horse  head,  manc,  and  tail:  and  is  gen- 

-- -,     -.     biting     horse         n        .i  •    i       i.  •  mi 

louse.   Magnified.  crally   thiCKCst   m    sprmg.       llie 

front  part  of  the  body  is  brownish,  and  the  abdomen  is 
yellowish  white,  with  eight  transverse  dark  bands  upon 
the  back. 

Remedies. — The  remarks  concerning  remedies  for 
cattle  lice  are  equally  applicable  to  tliese  species. 


21 


INSECT   PESTS   OF  THE  HOUSEHOLD 


Cockroaches 


Cockroaches  are  among  the  most  omnivorous  as  well 
as  omnipresent  of  the  insect  joests  of  the  household. 
Their  flattened  bodies  especially  fit  them  to  dwell  in 
cracks  ^nd  crevices,  in  the  walls  of  houses  in  cities,  and 
beneath  the  loose  bark  of  fallen  trees  in  the  woods.  Here 
they  find  congenial  retreats  and  flourish  abundantly. 
They  take  a  great  variety  of  food.  In  dwellings  they 
destroy  provisions  of  every  kind,  although,  as  a  partial 
recompense,  perhaps,  they  are  also  said  to  prey  upon 
bedbugs. 

As  has  been  so  often  the  case  with  our  injurious 
insects,  we  are  indebted  to  Europe  for  the  cockroaches 
tliat  are  most  obnoxious.  The  American  cockroach 
(Perijilaneta  americana)  occurs  commonly  in  the  fields 
and  woods,  and  occasionally  is  found  in  houses.  But 
the  oriental  cockroach  (^Per [plan eta  orievtalis)  and  the 
Croton  bug  or  German  cockroach  (Phyllodromia  ger- 
manica) — both  imported  species — prefer  the  city  dwell- 
ing, where,  around  the  steam  and  water  pi2:)es  of  the 
kitchen,  laundry  or  bathroom,  they  can  run  about  undis- 
turbed. They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  remaining 
concealed  during  the  day,  and  sallying  forth  in  search  of 
food  during  the  night. 

The  life  history  of  the  Croton  bug  has  been  admirably 
portrayed  by  Dr.  C.  V.  Eiley  at  Fig.  172.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  a  pod  or  egg  case  (/,  g)  from  which  the  young 
roaches   hatch.     They   pass   through   various   molts   as 

322 


COCKROACHES 


J23 


represented  at  a,  h,  c,  d,  and  do  not  acquire  wings  until 
full-grown  {e,  f,  h),  when  they  are  nearly  two-thirds  of 
an  inch  long.  The  other  roaches  develop  in  a  similar 
way. 

Remedies. — The  best  remedy  for  these  pests  is  a 
good  quality  of  insect  powder,  such  as  buhach.  In 
recommending  this,  Dr.  Riley  says  :  *^' Just  before  night- 
fall go  into  the  infested  roouis  and  pull  it  into  all  creyices, 


FIG.  172.    CEOTOX  BUG.  a,  first  stage;  b,  second  stage;  c,  tliird  stage; 

d,  fourth   stage;  e,  adult;  /,,  adult  female  with  egg  case;  g,  egg 

ease— enlarged;    h,  adult    with    wings    spread— all    natural    size 
except  g. 

under  baseboards,  into  drawers  and  cracks  of  old  furni- 
ture— in  fact  wherever  there  is  a  crack — and  in  the 
morning  the  floor  will  be  covered  with  dead  and  dying  or 
demoralized  and  paralyzed  roaches,  which  may  easily  be 
swept  up  or  otherwise  collected  and  burned.  With  clean- 
liness and  persistency  in  these  methods  the  pest  may  be 
substantially  driven  out  of  a  house,  and  should  never 
be  allowed  to  get  full  possession  by  immigrants  from 
without." 


324 


INSECTS   AND  INSECTICIDES 


The  Buffalo   Carpet   Beetle 

Anthrenus  scroplmlarim 
The  buffalo  carpet  beetle  is  supposed  to  have  been 
introduced  into  America  from  Europe  about  1876,  since 
when  it  has  done  great  damage  and  spread  over  a  large 
portion  of  the  Eastern  and  Central  United  States.  The 
adult  beetle  (Fig.  173,  d)  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
long,  black,  with  white  spots,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and 
has  a  red  stripe  along  the  middle  of  the  back.  Eggs  are 
laid  by  these  beetles,  probably  upon  carpets  themselves, 


FIG.  173.    CARPET  BEETLE,    rt,  larva,  back  view ;  ft,  larva,  view  of  under 
side;  c,  impa;  d,  beetle.    Magnified. 

and  soon  hatch  into  larvae  that  feed  upon  the  carpets. 
It  is  in  this  larval  stage'that  the  damage  is  done.  The 
larvse  cast  their  skins  occasionally  as  they  develop,  and 
the  time  required  for  them  to  become  full-grown  varies 
according  to  the  temperature  and  food  supply.  When 
full-grown  they  are  peculiar,  hairy  creatures  of  the 
form  represented  at  a  and  h  of  the  accompanying  figure. 
They  now  hide  in  a  crack  or  crevice,  and  change  to  pupae 
(c)  inside  the  hairy  skin.  In  a  short  time  they  again 
change  to  the  beetle  state,  the  beetles  emerging  through- 
out the  fall,  winter,  and  spring.  There  is  probably,  in 
ordinary  cases,  but  one  generation  a  year,  at  least  in  the 
Northern  States. 


THE   BEDBUG  325 

Remedies. — In  Europe  this  insect  does  very  little 
damage,  because  rugs  are  used  instead  of  carpets.  Rugs 
are  taken  up  and  shaken  so  often  that  the  insects  have 
no  opportunity  to  multiply.  The  use  of  rugs  should 
therefore  be  encouraged  in  regions  where  the  insect  is 
troublesome. 

Perhaps  the  most  practical  way  of  really  destroying 
these  insects  in  carpets  without  taking  them  up,  is  to  lay 
two  or  three  thicknesses  of  wet  cloths  on  the  carpet,  and 
iron  with  hot  llatirons.  Steam  will  thus  be  generated, 
which  will  permeate  the  carpet  and  kill  the  insects.  The 
pests  may  readily  be  killed  in  furniture  or  garments  by 
the  use  of  benzine  or  gasoline,  applied  as  a  spray  by  some 
sort  of  atomizer,  always  remembermg  tliat  these  sulstances 
must  not  come  in  contact  with  fij'e  in  any  shape.  ^^At 
housecleaning  time,"  says  Dr.  liiley,  '^as  many  of  the 
rooms  should  be  bared  at  once  as  possible,  and  the  house- 
keeper should  go  carefully  oyer  the  rooms,  removing  all 
dust,  and  with  a*  hand  atomizer  charged  with  benzine 
should  puff  the  liquid  into  all  the  floor  cracks  and  under 
the  baseboards  until  every  crevice  has  been  reached. 
The  carpets  themselves,  after  thorough  beating,  should 
be  slightly  sprayed  with  the  same  substance,  which  will 
quickly  evaporate,  leaving  no  odor  after  a  short  time. 
The  inflammability  of  benzine,  however,  should  be  remem- 
bered, and  no  light  should  be  brought  near  it." 

The   Bedbug 

AcantMa  lectidaria 

A  short  account  of  this  notorious  pest  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  present  purpose.  Many  people  will  rec- 
ognize the  peculiar  flattened  creatures  represented  at  Fig. 
174,  as  former  acquaintances,  and  those  who  do  not  so 
recognize  them  are  to  be  congratulated.     The  eggs  of 


326 


INSECTS   AND   INSECTICIDES 


these  insects  are  laid  in  the  cracks  of  walls  and  bedsteads, 
and  the  young  (a)  do  not  differ  essentially,  excej^t  in 
size,  from  the  adult  (b).     Bedbugs  are  able  to  exist  a 

long  time  without  food,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  wlien 
food  is  abundant  they  mul- 
tilAj  with  remarkable  ra- 
pidity. 

Remedies. — Spraying 
the  cracks  of  walls,  beds, 
etc.,  where  these  insects 
occur  with  benzine  is  the 
best  manner  of  destroying  them.  This  substance  kills 
the  eggs  as  well  as  the  adults.  Gi-eat  care,  of  course, 
should  be  taken  to  jjrevent  their  ingress  to  the  house. 


FIG.    174.      BEDBUG,      a,   youiig 
adult.    Magnified. 


Clothes   Hoths 


There  are  three  closely  related  insects  in  the  United 
States  which  may  properly  be  called  clothes  moths. 
They  are  quite  similar  in  appearance,  but  the  larvae 
differ  somewhat  in  feeding  habits.  The  commonest  one 
probably  is  the  case-making  clothes  moth  ( Tinea  pelU- 
onella),  the  life  history  of  which  Dr.  Eiley  has  thus 
summarized:  "The  small  light-brown  moths,  distin- 
guished by  the  darker  spots  at  intervals  on  the  wings, 
begin  to  apj^ear  in  May  and  are  occasionally  seen  flitting 
about  as  late  as  August.  They  pair  and  the  female  then 
searches  for  suitable  places  for  the  deposition  of  her  eggs, 
working  her  way  into  dark  corners  and  deep  into  the 
folds  of  garments,  apparently  choosing  by  instinct  the 
least  conspicuous  places.  From  these  hatch  the  white, 
soft-bodied  larvae,  each  one  of  which  begins  immediately 
to  make  a  case  for  itself  from  the  fragments  of  the  cloth 
upon  which  it  feeds.  The  case  is  in  the  shape  of  a  hollow 
roll  or  cylinder  and  the  interior  is  lined  with  silk.     As 


CLOTHES   MOTHS 


327 


they  grow  they  enlarge  these  cases  by  adding  material  to 
either  end  and  by  inserting  gores  down  the  sides  which 
they  spht  open  for  the  purj^ose.  The  larva  reaches  its 
full  growth  toward  winter,  and  then  crawling  into  some 
yet  more  protected  spot,  remains  there  torpid  through 
the  winter  within  its  case,  which  is  at  this  time  thickened 
and  fastened  at  either  end  with  silk.  The  transforma- 
tion to  pupa  takes  place 
within  the  case  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  and  the 
moths  soon  afterward 
issue.  The  larva  feeds 
in  all  woolen  cloths,  and 
also  in  haircloth,  furs 
and  feathers. " 


CLOTHES  MOTH 


moth ; 


Remedies.— Under  laiva;  c,  web.    Magnified. 

this  head  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  the  follow- 
ing remarks  by  Dr.  Riley,  who  lately  published  an  ad- 
mirable series  of  articles,  first  in  Good  Housekeeping  and 
afterwards  in  Insect  Life,  to  which  we  are  largely  in- 
debted for  the  information  and  illustrations  on  this  sub- 
ject. He  says:  *^ During  the  latter  part  of  May  or 
early  in  June  a  vigorous  campaign  should  be  entered 
upon.  All  carpets,  clothes,  cloth-covered  furniture,  furs 
and  rugs  should  be  thoroughly  shaken  and  aired,  and, 
if  possible,  exposed  to  the  sunlight  as  long  as  practicable. 
If  the  house  is  badly  infested,  or  if  any  particular  arti- 
cle is  supposed  to  be  badly  infested,  a  free  use  of  benzine 
will  be  advisable.  All  floor  cracks  and  dark  closets 
should  be  sprayed  with  this  substance.  Too  much 
pains  cannot  be  taken  to  destroy  every  moth  and 
every  egg  and  every  newly  hatched  larva,  for  im- 
munity for  the  rest  of  the  year  depends  largely — 
almost  entirely — upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  the 
work  of  extermination  is  carried  on  at  this  time.  The 
benzine  spray  will  kill  the  insect  in  every  stage,  and  it 


328  IT^SECTS   AND    INSECTICIDES 

is  one  of  the  few  substances  whicli  will  destroy  the  egg. 
I  would  however  repeat  the  caution  as  to  its  inflamma- 
bility. No  light  should  be  brought  into  a  room  in  which 
it  has  been  used  until  after  a  thorough  airing  and  until 
the  odor  is  almost  dissijoated. 

*^The  proper  packing  away  of  furs  and  winter  cloth- 
ing through  the  summer  is  a  serious  matter.  A  great 
deal  of  unnecessary  expenditure  in  the  way  of  cedar  chests 
and  cedar  wardrobes  and  various  compounds  in  the  way 
of  powders  has  been  urged  by  writers  on  these  pests. 
But  experience  fully  proves  that  after  a  thorough  treat- 
ment in  May  or  June,  garments  may  be  safely  put  away 
for  the  rest  of  the  season  with  no  other  protection  than 
wrapping  them  closely  in  stout  paper,  to  preclude  infec- 
tion through  some  belated  female.  My  assistant,  Mr. 
L.  0.  Howard,  tells  me  of  an  excellent  plan  which  he 
luis  adopted.  He  buys  for  a  small  sum  from  his  tailor  a 
number  of  pasteboard  boxes  in  which  they  deliver  suits, 
and  his  wife  carefully  folds  and  packs  away  all  clothing, 
gumming  a  strip  of  wrapping  paper  around  the  edges  of 
the  cover  so  as  to  leave  no  crack.  These  boxes  \vill  last 
for  a  lifetime  with  careful  use.  Others  use  for  the  same 
purpose  ordinary  paper  flour  sacks  or  linen  pillowcases, 
which  answer  well.  The  success  of  these  means  depends 
entirely  on  the  thoroughness  of  the  preliminary  work. 
Camphor,  tobacco,  napthaline,  and  other  strong  odorants 
are  only  partial  repellants.  and  without  the  precaution 
urged  are  of  little  avail. 

*^  Cloth-covered  furniture  which  is  inconstant  use 
will  not  be  harmed,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  cloth- 
lined  carriages.  Where  such  furniture  is  stored  away  or 
kept  unused  in  a  dark  room,  or  wliere  the  carriages  are 
left  in  a  dark  coach  house  through  the  summer,  at 
least  two  sprayings  with  benzine,  say  once  in  June  and 
once  about  August  flrst,  Avill  be  advisable.  Another 
plan  which  will  act  as  a  protection  in  such  cases  is  to 


ANTS  329 

sponge  tlie  cloth  linings  and  covers  both  sides  where  jdos- 
sible,  Avith  a  dilute  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  in 
alcohol,  made  just  strong  enough  not  to  leave  a  white 
mark  on  a  black  feather." 

Ants 

Ants  frequently  become  one  of  the  most  annoying 
kinds  of  household  pests  by  getting  into  and  running 
over  everything.  The  species  most  generally  troublesome 
is  the  little  red  ant  (Monomorhiin  pharaonis),  which  is 
worldwide  in  its  distribution — although  it  is  said  to  have 
been  originally  a  native  of  Europe.  The  worker  of  this 
ubiquitous  pest  is  represented  at  Fig.  176,  a;  and  the 
female  at  b,  of  the  same 
figure.  The  nests  are 
made  in  almost  any  con- 
cealed position  about  the 
house — under  floors,  be- 
hind baseboards,  between 
walls,  or  in  the  walks  or 
grass    about   the   house. 

T^  XI  i.     XI      J!        FIG.  176.    LITTLE  KED  A]S'T.    rt,  Worker: 

i^rom  these  nests  the  for-  6,  female.    Magnified. 

aging  parties  sally  forth  and  overrun  the  house,  devour- 
ing or  carrying  off  particles  of  food  of  all  descriptions, 
getting  into  everything  in  sight,  and  often  becoming  an 
intolerable  nuisance. 

Remedies. — The  first  essential  to  a  successful  fight 
with  these  insects  is  to  find  the  location  of  the  nests. 
If  they  can  then  be  reached  it  is  easy  to  destroy  them  by 
means  of  benzine,  gasoline,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  or  even 
hot  water— anything  in  fact,  that  will  kill  them.  If  any 
inflammable  or  explosive  substances  are  used,  of  course 
great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  away  fire  in  any  form. 

There  are  certain  larger  ants  that  are  frequently 
troublesome  on  lawns,  by  making  tlieir  nests  above  the 


330  II^SECTS   Aiq'D    INSECTICIDES 

surface  of  the  grass,  and  thus  disfiguring  them.  A 
simple  way  of  destroying  these  is  recorded  by  Dr.  Kiley, 
as  follows  :  A  number  of  holes  are  punched  in  the  nest 
by  means  of  a  pointed  stick  ;  a  teaspoonful  of  bisulphide 
of  carbon  is  then  poured  down  each  hole,  and  a  damp 
blanket  is  thrown  oyer  the  nest  for  a  few  minutes — then 
the  blanket  being  removed,  the  bisulphide  is  exploded  at 
the  mouth  of  each  hole  by  means  of  a  light  at  the  end  of 
a  pole.  The  slight  explosions  drive  the  poisonous  fumes 
down  through  the  underground  tunnels,  killing  off  the 
ants  in  enormous  numbers. 

The  little  red  ants  may  be  trapped  by  means  of 
small  sponges,  saturated  with  sweetened  water,  and  then 
occasionally  dropped  into  boiling  water.  But  this  is  a 
much  less  satisfactory  method  than  that  of  destroying 
them  in  their  nests. 


INDEX 


Page 

Abbot  sphinx 179 

Acaiitliia  lectularia 324 

Acridium  ainericaniim 304 

Aericliclse 17,  304 

Aegeria  pyri 94 

Agrotis  saucia 257 

Agrilus  iiificollis 163 

American  cockroach 322 

"  locust 304 

Anarsia  lineatella 138 

Anasa  tristis 238 

Angoumis  grain  motli 290 

Anisota  rubicunda 20G 

Anisopteryx  pometaria 79 

"  vernata 81 

Anthononious  quadrigibus 92 

"  signatus 144 

^nthrenus  scrophularise 324 

Ants 21,  329 

Apanteles  congregatus 32 

Aphides 218 

Apliis,  apple 78 

"        black  peaclr 123 

"        brassiere 259 

"        maidis 274 

"       maidi-radicis 267 

"       mali ; . . .     78 

"       persic3e-niger 123 

"        prunifolii 115 

Apple,  insects  affecting 63 

"        aphis 78 

"       caterpillar,  yellow- 
necked 84 

"        curculio 92 

"        leaf  roller,  lesser 83 

"       leaf  skeletonizer 87 

"        maggot 2,88 

"       tent  caterpillar 81 

"        tree  borer,  flat-headed  .     65 
"  "       "     round-headed    63 

«'       worm 88 

Army  worm 302 

Arsenate  of  lead 42 

Asopia  costatis 297 

Asparagus  beetle 263 

Aspidiotus  perniciosus 95 

Bacterial  diseases  of  insects. ..    37 

Bagworm 204 

Bean  weevil 242 

Beautiful  wood  nymph 183 

Bedbug 325 

Beetles 20 


Page 

Bembeeia  margin ata 159 

Bird  grasshopper 16,  304 

Blackberry,  insects  affecting..  159 

gallfly 165 

Blissus  leucopterus 280 

Blister  beetle,  black 232 

"  "         strii)ed 231 

Bollwonn 275 

Bonibycidai 19 

Box-elder  bug 211 

Braconidpe 23 

Bruchus  obsoletiis 242 

pisi 243 

Budworm 74 

Buffalo  tree  hopper 72 

"        carpet  beetle 324 

Cabbage,  insects  affecting 245 

"  aphis 259 

"         maggot 245 

"         worm,  imported 250 

"         plusia 253 

"  cutworms 2.56 

Cacsecia  cerasivorana 130 

"  argyrospila 132 

Calandra  granaria 288 

Cankerworm 79 

"  fall 79 

"  spring 81 

Carabidse 20 

Carpet  beetle 324 

Carpocapsa  pomonella 88 

Cattle  lice 318 

Cecidomyia  destructor 270 

"  leguminicola 295 

"  tritici 288 

Cecropia  emperor  moth 197 

Cecindelidse 20 

Celery  caterpillar 6,  234 

Ceramica  picta 254 

Ceresa  bubalus 72 

Cherry,  insects  affecting 128 

aphis 128 

"        tree  leaf  roller 130 

Chinch  bug 11,  280 

Chionaspis  furfurus 95 

Chrysobothris  femorata 65 

Chrysomelidse 21 

Ciisiocampa  americana 81 

Clothes  moths 326 

"  "      case-making 326 

Clover,  insects  affecting 292 

*'       hay  worm 297 


331 


332 


INSECTS  AND   INSECTICIDES 


Clover-leaf  beetle 293 

"       root  borer 292 

"       seed  midge 295 

"        stem  borer 297 

Cockroaches 322 

Coccotorus  pruiiicida 118 

Codling  moth 88,  112 

Compsomyia  macellaria 313 

Conotrachelus  nenuphar  116,127,132 

Corn,  insects  atfecting 2G7 

'•       aphis 274 

"      root  aphis 267 

"         "      worm,  western 268 

"       stalk  borer 272 

"       worm 275 

Crepidodera  cucumeris 237 

Crioceris  asparagi 2(j3 

Croton  bug 322 

Cucumber,  insects  affecting.. . .  237 

"  flea  beetle 237 

"  beetle,  striijed 239 

"  "    twelve-spotted  241 

Currant,  Insects  affecting 148 

"         aphis 151 

"  borer 148 

"         leaf  hopper 151 

"         span  worm 156 

"         leaf  bug 152 

"         worm,  imported 149 

Cutworms 273 

Dactylopius  adonidum 220 

"  destructor 220 

Dakruma  convolutella 157 

Datana  angiisii 208 

"         ministra 84 

Desmia  maculalis 182 

Diabrotica  vittata 239 

"  punctata 241,  270 

"  longicornis 268 

Diastrophus  nebulosus 165 

Dicerca  divaricata 128 

Diplosis  pyrivora 109 

Diptera  .". 19 

Diseases  of  insects 37 

Doryphora  10-lineata.     229 

Dragon  flies 13 

Elateridse 22,  271 

Emphytus  maculatus 142 

Empoa  albopicta 151 

Epicaerus  imbricatus 233 

Epicauta  pennsylvanica 232 

vittata 231 

Eriocampa  cerasi 132 

Eudemis  botrana 184 

Eudryas  grata 183 

Eufitcliia  rebearia 156 

Eurycreon  rantalis 273 

Fall  webworm 201 

Four-lined  leaf  bug 152 

Fluted  scale 36 

Fruit-tree  leaf  roller 132 

"       bark  beetle 112,  123 

Galeruca  xanthomelsena 202 

Garden  webworm 273 

Gelechia  cerealella 290 

German  cockroach 322 


Page 

Gooseberry  fruit  worm 157 

Gortyna  nitela 272 

Grain  aphis 284 

"        weevil 288 

Grape,  insects  affecting 167 

*'        berry  moth 184 

"        phylloxera 168 

"        root  borer 167 

"        sphinx  moths 177 

"        vine  beetle,  spotted  —  176 

'•  "     flea-beetle 172 

"  "     leaf  hopper 180 

"     leaf  roller 187 

"  "     sphinx,  green 177 

Graphops  pubescens 85 

Graptodera  chalybea 172 

Grass,  insects  affecting 299 

Grasshoppers 304 

Green-striped  maple  worm 206 

Gryllidoe 17 

Gypsy  moth 212 

Haematopinus  eurysternus 318 

"  vituli 318 

"  asini 321 

Heematobia  serrata 319 

Harlequin  cabbage  bug 258 

Heel  fly 315 

Heliothis  armigera 275 

Hellebore 42 

Hemiptera 18 

Hessian  fly 278 

flexapoda 12 

Horn  fly 319 

Horse  louse,  sucking 321 

"  "        biting 321 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas 48 

Hylastes  trifolii 292 

Hymenoptera 22 

Hyphantria  cxm^a, 201 

Hypoderma  liireata 315 

Ichnemnonidae 23 

Icerya^urchasi 36 

Imported  cabbage  worm 250 

"  currant  worm 149 

"  elm-leaf  beetle 202 

Insects,  collecting  and  pre- 
serving      56  , 

Insects,  orders  of 12 

"         parasitic 10 

Insecticides,  applying 52 

"  the  principal 39 

Isosoma  hordei 286 

tritici 286 

Kerosene 43 

Kerosene  emulsion 43 

Lachnosterna  fusca 129,  299 

Lachnus  dentatus 193 

"  strobi 193 

Languria  mozardi 296 

Leaf  beetles 21 

Leaf  crnmpler 85 

Leaf  skeletonizer,  apple 87 

Lecai\ium  persicee 81 

"  pvri 112 

ribis 102 

Leptocoris  trivittatus 211 


IKDEX. 


333 


Page 

Lepidoptera 18 

Leucania  unipuncta 302 

Liixie  spray 47 

Little  reel  ant 329 

Loeustldse 17 

London  purple 41 

Lygus  pratensis 143 

Macrodactyliis  subspinosus 174 

Maple  borer 189 

May  beetle 129 

Meadow  maggot 300 

Mealy  bugs 220 

Melahoplus  f emur-rubrum 305 

"  spretiis 304 

Melanoxanthus 190 

"  salicti 191 

Melittia  ceto 235 

Meromyza  americana 285 

Mononioriuni  pharaonis 329 

Monophadnus  rubi 160 

Monastegia  rosse 215 

Murgantia  hlstrionica 258 

Mytllaspis  pomorum 67 

Myzus  cerasi 128 

"        persiCEe 126 

ribis 151 

Natural  enemies  of    injurious 

insects 29 

Nematus  ventricosus 149 

Noctuidae 19 

Northern  corn-root  worm 268 

Oberea  bimaculata 160 

Ocnerea  dispar 212 

Oecantbus  niveus 161 

Onion,  insects  affecting 261 

maggot 261 

Orgyia  leucostlgma 199 

Oriental  cockroach 322 

Ortlioptera 15 

Oyster-shell  bark  louse 67,  112 

Ox-warble  fly 315 

Ox  louse,  long-nosed 318 

"       "       short-nosed 318 

«        •'       biting 318 

Papilio  asterias 16,  234 

Paris  green 39 

Pea  weevil 243 

Peach,  insects  affecting 121 

"        aphis 126 

"      black 123 

"        tree  bark  louse 127 

"         "      borer 121 

Pear,  insects  affecting 94 

"      blight  beetle 112 

•'      midge 109 

"      tree  bark  louse 112 

"        ♦'     borer 94 

"        "     psvlla 107 

"     slug 101,  132 

Pelidnota  punctata 176 

Pempolia  hamniondi 87 

Perphigus  tessellata 245 

Periplaneta  americana 322 

"  orientalis 322 

Phalaenidae 19 

Phlegethoutius  celeus 32 


Page 

Phorbia  ceparum 261 

Phoxo-pteris  comptana 140 

Phycis  indigenella S5 

Phyllotreta  vittata 255 

Phyllodromia  germanica 322 

Phylloxera  vastatrix 168 

Phytonomus  punctatus 293 

Phy toptus  pyri 105 

Pieris  rapa? 250 

"      oleracea 252 

"      protodice 252 

Pitliy  blackberry  gall 16^ 

Plant  lice 218 

Platysamia  cecropia 197 

Plum,  insects  affecting 113 

"        aphis 115 

"        curculio 112,116,  132 

"       goyger 118 

"        tree  borer 58 

Plusia  brassicoe 253 

Poecilocapsus  lineatus 152 

Potato-stalk  weevil 228 

"        beetle,  Colorado 229 

Protoporce  celeus 225 

Pseudoneuroptera 13 

Psylla  pyricola 107 

Pulviuaria  innumerabilis 209 

Pyrethrum 43 

Raspberry,  insects  affecting...  159 

"  cane  borer 160 

"  root  borer 159 

"  slug 160 

Red-legged  locust 305 

Red-necked  agrilus 163 

Red  spider 219 

Resin  washes 47 

Rhopalocera 18 

Rocky  Mountain  locust 304 

Rose,  insects  affecting 215 

beetle 174 

"        leaf  hopper 217 

"       slug 215 

Sannina  exitiosa 121 

San  Jos^  scale 95 

Sesia  tipulif ormis 148 

Sai^erda  Candida 63 

Scale  lice 220 

Scarabeida^. 22 

Scliizoneura  lanigera 69 

Sciapteron  polistiformis 167 

Scolytus  rugidosiis 112,  123 

Screw  worm 313 

Scurfy  bark  louse 95 

Selandria  cerasi 101 

Sesia  acern  i 189 

Shade  trees,  insects  affecting..  189 

Siphonophora  avense 284 

Snout  beetles 22 

Snowy  tree  cricket 161 

Southern  corn-root  worm 270 

Sphingid?e 18 

Spotted  cucumber  beetle 241 

Squash,  insects  affecting 235 

"         vine  borer 235 

bug 238 

Strawberry,  insects  affecting..  137 


334 


INSECTS   AKD   IKSECTICTDES 


Page 

Strawberry  crown  borer 138 

"  crown  miner 138 

"  leaf  roller 140 

"  root  worms 137 

"  slug 142 

"  weevil 144 

Tarnished  plant  bug 143 

Tent  caterpillar,  apple  tree —     81 

Teras  minuta 83 

Tetranyclius  telarius 219 

Thyreus  aobotii 179 

Thyridopteryx     ephemersefor- 

mis 204 

Thysanura 12 

Tiger  beetles 20 

Tinea  pellionella 326 

Tipula  bicarnea 300 

Tmetocera  ocellana 74 

Tobacco 48 

Tobacco  worm 32 

Tomato  worm 225 

TootliPd  willow  aphis 193 

Tortricida? 19 

Trichobaris  trinotata 228 

Trichodectes  scalaris 318 

"  piiosus 321 


Page 

Trichodectes  palumpilosus 321 

Trypeta  pomouella 90 

Tyloderma  fragarise 138 

Typhlocybarosi^ 217 

"  vitis 180 

Variegated  cutworm 257 

Walnut  caterpillar 208 

Wavy-striped  tiea-beetle 255 

Wheat,  insects  affecting 278 

"         bulb  worm 285 

"  joint  worms 286 

"  midge 288 

White  arsenic 42 

White  grub 299 

White-marked  tussock  moth. . .  199 

White-pine  aphis 193 

AVillow-grove  aphis 191 

Willow-twig  aphis 190 

Wireworms 271 

Woolly  aphis 69 

AVoolly  alder  aphis 195 

Woollv  maple-bark  louse. 209 

Xylebbrus  pyri 112 

Yellow-necked    apple-tree  cat- 
erpillar      84 

Zebra  caterpillar.. .  - 254 


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2  STANDARD  BOOKS. 

Mushrooms :    How  to  Grow  Them. 

Any  one  who  has  an  ordinary  house  cellar,  woodshed  or  bam,  can 
grow  Mushrooms.  This  is  the  most  practical  work  on  the  subject 
ever  written,  and  the  only  book  on  growing  Mushrooms  published 
in  America.  The  author  describes  how  he  grows  Mushrooms,  and 
how  they  are  grown  for  x)rofit  by  the  leading  market  gardeners,  and 
for  home  use  by  the  most  successful  i^rivate  growers.  Engravings 
drawn  from  nature  expressly  for  this  work.  By  Wm.  Falconer. 
Cloth.    Price,  postpaid.  1.50 

Land  Draining:. 

A  Handbook  for  Farmers  on  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Drain- 
ing, by  Manly  Miles,  giving  the  results  of  his  extended  experience 
in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions  for  the  laying  out  and  the 
construction  of  tile  drains  will  enable  the  farmer  to  avoid  the 
errors  of  imperfect  construction,  and  the  disappointment  that 
must  necessarily  follow.  This  manual  for  practical  farmers  will 
also  be  found  convenient  for  references  in  regard  to  many  ques- 
tions that  may  arise  in  crop  growing,  aside  from  the  special  sub- 
jects of  drainage  of  which  it  treats.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.00 

Allen's  New  American  Farm  Book. 

The  very  best  work  on  the  siibject;  comprising  all  that  can  be  con- 
densed into  an  available  volume.  Originally  by  Richard  L.  Allen. 
Revised  and  greatly  enlarged  by  Lewis  F.  Allen.    Cloth,  12mo.    2.50 

Henderson's  Gardening:  for  Profit. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  The  standard  work  on  Market  and  Family 
Gardening.  The  successful  experience  of  the  author  for  more  than 
thirty  years,  and  his  willingness  to  tell,  as  he  does  in  this  Avork,  the 
secret  of  his  success  for  the  benefit  of  others,  enables  him  to  give 
most  valuable  information.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated. 
Cloth,  12m  o.  2.00 

Henderson's  Gardening:  for  Pleasure. 

A  guide  to  the  amateur  in  the  fruit,  vegetable  and  flower  garden, 
with  full  descriptions  for  the  greenhouse,  conservatory  and  window 
garden.  It  meets  the  wants  of  all  classes  in  country,  city  and  vil- 
lage who  keep  a  garden  for  their  own  enjoyment  rather  than  for 
the  sale  of  products.  By  Peter  Henderson.  Finely  Illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow. 

New  Edition.  A  Treatise  on  the  Chemical  Composition,  Structure 
and  Life  of  the  Plant.  Revised  Edition.  This  book  is  a  guide  to 
the  knowledge  of  agriciiltural  plants,  their  composition,  their 
structure  and  modes  of  development  and  growth ;  of  the  complex 
organizations  of  plants,  and  the  use  of  the  parts;  the  germination 
of  seeds,  and  the  food  of  plants  obtained  both  from  the  air  and 
the  soil.  The  book  is  a  valuable  one  to  all  real  students  of  agricul- 
ture. With  numerous  illustrations  and  tables  of  analysis.  By  Prof. 
Samuel  W.  Johnson  of  Yale  College.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 


STAIJTDARD  BOOKS.  3 

Johnson's  How  Crops  Feed. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Atmosphere  and  the  Soil,  as  related  in  the 
Nvitrition  of  Agricultural  Plants.  This  volume— the  companion  and 
complement  to  "How  Crops  Grow" — has  been  welcomed  by  those 
who  appreciate  the  scientific  aspects  of  agriculture.  Illustrated. 
By  Prof.  Samuel  W.  Johnson.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Market  Gardening:  and  Farm  Notes. 

By  Barnet  Landretli.  Experiences  and  Observations  for  both 
North  and  South,  of  interest  to  the  Amateur  Gardener,  Trucker  and 
Farmer.  A  novel  feature  of  the  book  is  the  calendar  of  farm  and 
garden  operations  for  each  month  of  the  year;  the  chapters  on 
fertilizers,  transiilanting,  succession  and  rotation  of  crops,  the 
•packing,  shipping  and  marketing  of  vegetables,  will  be  especially 
useful  to  market  gardeners.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.00 

Forest  Planting:. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Care  of  Woodlands  and  the  Restoration  of  the 
Denuded  Timber-Lands  on  Plains  and  Mountains.  By  H.  Nicholas 
Jarchow,  LL.  D.  The  author  has  fully  described  those  European 
methods  which  have  proved  to  be  most  useful  in  maintaining  the 
superb  forests  of  tlie  old  world.  Tliis  experience  has  been  adapted 
to  the  different  climates  and  trees  of  America,  full  instructions  be- 
ing given  for  forest  planting  on  our  various  kinds  of  soil  and  sub- 
soil, whether  on  mountain  or  valley.    Illustrated,  12mo.  1.50 

Harris*  Talks  on  Manures. 

By  Joseph  Harris,  M,  S.,  author  of  ""Walks  and  Talks  on  the  Farm," 
"Harris  on  tlie  Pig,"  etc.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  author.  A 
series  of  familiar  and  practical  talks  between  the  author  and  the 
Deacon,  the  Doctor,  and  other  neiglibors,  on  tlie  whole  siabject  of 
manures  and  fertilizers:  including  a  chapter  especially  written  for 
it,  by  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  of  Rothamsted,  England.  Cloth, 
12mo.  1.75 

Truck  Farming:  at  the  South. 

A  work  which  gives  the  experience  of  a  successful  grower  of  vege- 
tables or  "  truck"  for  Nortiiern  markets.  Essential  to  any  one  who 
contemplates  entering  this  promising  field  of  Agriculture.  By  A. 
Oemler  of  Georgia.    Illustrated,  cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Sweet  Potato  Culture. 

Giving  full  instructions  from  starting  the  plants  to  harvesting  and 
storing  the  crop.  With  a  chapter  on  the  Cliinese  Yam.  By  James 
Fitz,  Keswich,  Va.,  author  of  "Southern  Apple  and  Peach  Culture." 
Cloth,  12mo.  .60 

Heinrich's  Window  Flower  Garden. 

The  author  is  a  practical  florist,  and  tins  enterprising  voUime  em- 
bodies his  personal  experiences  in  Window  Gardening  during  a 
long  period.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  By  Julius  J.  Heinrich. 
Fully  illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  .» 


4  STANDARD  BOOKS. 

Greenhouse  Construction. 

By  Prof.  L.  E,.  Taft.  A  complete  treatise  on  Greenhouso  structures 
and  arrangements  of  the  various  forms  and  styles  of  Plant  Houses 
for  professional  florists  as  well  as  amateurs.  All  the  best  and  most 
approved  structures  are  so  fully  and  clearly  described  that  anyone 
who  desires  to  build  a  Greenhouse  will  have  no  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining the  kind  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  The  modern  and  most 
successfnl  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating  are  fully  treated 
upon.  Special  chapters  are  devoted  to  houses  used  for  the  growing 
of  one  kind  of  plants  exclusively.  The  construction  of  hotbeds 
and  frames  receives  appropriate  attention.  Over  one  hundred  ex- 
cellent illustrations,  specially  engraved  for  this  work,  make  every 
point  clear  to  the  reader  and  add  considerably  to  the  artistic  ap- 
pearance of  the  book.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants. 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  complete  treatise  on  the  History,  Description, 
Methods  of  Propagation  and  full  Directions  for  the  successful  cul- 
ture of  Bulbs  in  the  garden,  Dwelling  and  Greenhouse.  As  gener- 
ally treated,  bulbs  are  an  expensive  luxury,  while,  when  properly 
managed,  they  afford  the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure  at  the  least 
cost.  The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years  made  bulb  grow- 
ing a  si^ecialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority  on  their  cultivation 
and  management.  The  illustrations  which  embellish  this  work 
have  been  drawn  from  nature,  and  have  been  engraved  especially 
for  this  book.  The  cultural  directions  are  plainly  stated,  practical 
and  to  the  point.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Henderson's  Practical  Floriculture. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  A  guide  to  the  successful  propagation  and 
cultivation  of  florists'  iilants.  The  work  is  not  one  for  florists  and 
gardeners  only,  but  the  amateiir's  wants  are  constantly  kept  in 
mind,  and  we  have  a  very  complete  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of 
flowers  laider  glass,  or  in  the  open  air,  suited  to  those  who  grow 
flowers  for  pleasure  as  well  as  those  who  make  them  a  matter  of 
trade.  Beautifully  illustrated.  New  and  enlarged  edition.  Cloth, 
12mo.  1.50 

Lon§:'s  Ornamental  Gardening:  for  Americans. 

A  Treatise  on  Beautifying  Homes,  Rural  Districts  and  Cemeteries. 
A  plain  and  practical  work  at  a  modei-ate  price,  with  numerous 
illustrations  and  instructions  so  plain  that  they  may  be  readily 
followed.  By  Elias  A.  Long,  Landscape  Architect.  Illustrated, 
Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 


The  Propa§:ation  of  Plants. 


By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Illustrated  with  numerous  engravings.  An 
eminently  practical  and  useful  work.  Describing  the  process  of 
hybridizing  and  crossing  species  and  varieties,  and  also  the  many 
different  modes  by  which  cultivated  plants  may  be  propagated  and 
multiplied.    Cloth,  12mo.  IM 


STANDAED   BOOKS.  5 

Parsons  on  the  Rose. 

hisSlv  ofth;  voir' v*  ^  *'?*^'^  ^^  "^"  propagation,  culture  and 
histoiyol  the  rose.  xNew  and  revised  edition.  In  his  work  upon 
the  rose  Mr.  Parsons  has  gathered  up  the  curious  legends  concern- 
ing the  tloNrer,  and  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  esteen.  in  which  it  was 
held  in  former  times.  A  simple  garden  classification  has  been 
adopted  and  the  leading  varieties  under  each  class  enumerated 
and  briefly  described.  The  chapters  on  multiplication,  cultivation 
and  training  are  very  full,  and  the  work  is  altogether  one  of  the 
most  complete  before  the  public.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.         I.OO 

Henderson's  Handbook  of  Plants. 

This  new  edition  comprises  about  fifty  per  cent,  more  genera  than 
the  former  one,  and  embraces  the  botanical  name,  derivation 
natural  order,  etc.,  together  with  a  short  history  of  the  different 
genera,  concise  instructions  for  their  propagation  and  culture,  and 
all  the  leading  local  or  common  English  names,  together  with  a 
comprehensive  glossary  of  Botanical  and  Technical  terms.  Plain 
instructions  are  also  given  for  the  cultivation  of  the  principal  ve<-- 
etables,  fruits  and  flowers.    Cloth,  large  8vo.  4.00 

Barry's  Fruit  Garden. 

By  P.  Barry.  A  standard  work  on  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees ;  the  author 
having  had  over  thirty  years' practical  experience  at  the  head  of 
one  of  the  largest  nurseries  in  this  country.     New  edition  revised 
up  to  date.    Invaluable  to  all  fruit  growers.    Illustrated.    Cloth 
^2"^«-  2.00 

Fulton's  Peach  Culture. 

This  is  the  only  jn-actical  guide  to  Peach  Culture  on  the  Delaware 
Peninsula,  and  is  the  best  work  upon  the  subject  of  peach  growing 
for  those  who  would  be  successful  in  that  culture  in  any  part  of 
the  country.  It  has  been  tlioroughly  revised  and  a  large  portion  of 
itrewitten,  by  Hon.  J.  Alexander  Fulton,  the  author,  bringing  it 
down  to  date.    Cloth,  12mo.  ^_5q 

Strawberry  Culturist. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Containing  the  History,  Sexuality,  Field  and 
Garden  Culture  of  Strawberries,  forcing  or  pot  culture,  how  to 
grow  from  seed,  hybridizing,  and  all  information  necessary  to  en- 
able everybody  to  raise  their  own  strawberries,  together  with  a 
description  of  new  varieties  and  a  list  of  the  best  of  the  old  sorts 
Fully  illustrated.    Flexible  cloth,  12mo.  .25 

Fuller's  Small  Fruit  Culturist. 

By  Andrew  S.  Fuller.  Rewritten,  enlarged,  and  brought  fully  up  to 
the  present  time.  The  book  covers  the  whole  ground  of  propagating 
Small  Fruits,  their  culture,  varieties,  packing  for  market,  etc  It  is 
rery  finely  and  thoroughly  illustrated,  and  makes  an  admirable 
companion  to  -The  Grape  Culturist,"  by  the  same  well  known 
author.  ^  _. 


6  STAITDARD   BOOKS. 

Fuller's  Grape  Culturist. 

By  A.  S.  Fuller.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works  on  the  Cul- 
ture of  the  Hardy  Grapes,  with  full  directions  for  all  departments 
of  propagation,  culture,  etc.,  with  150  excellent  engravings,  illus- 
trating planting,  training,  grafting,  etc.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Quinn's  Pear  Culture  for  Profit. 

Teaching  How  to  Raise  Pears  intelligently,  and  with  the  best  re- 
sults, how  to  find  out  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  best  nietliods  of 
l>reparing  it,  the  best  varieties  to  select  under  existing  conditions, 
the  best  modes  of  planting,  pruning,  fertilizing,  grafting,  and  utiliz- 
ing tlie  ground  before  tlie  trees  come  into  bearing,  and  finally  of 
gathering  and  packing  for  market.  Illustrated.  By  P.  T.  Quinn, 
practical  horticulturist.    Cloth,  12mo  1.00 

Husmann's  American  Grape  Growing:  and  Wine-Makicg:. 

By  George  Husmann  of  Talcoa  vineyards,  I*Japa,  California.  New 
and  enlarged  edition.  With  contributions  from  well  know  grape- 
growers,  giving  a  wide  range  of  experience.  The  author  of  this 
book  is  a  recognized  authority  on  the  subject.    Cloth,  12mo.         1.50 

White's  Cranberry  Culture. 

Contents: — Natural  History. — History  of  Cultivation. — Choice  of 
Location.— Preparing  the  Ground. — Planting  the  Vines. — Manage- 
ment of  Meadows.— Flooding.— Enemies  and  Difficulties  Overcome. 
— Picking. — Keeping. — Profit  and  Loss. — Letters  from  Practical 
Growers.— Insects  Injurious  to  the  Cranberry.  By  Joseph  J.  White, 
a  practical  grower.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  New  and  revised 
edition.  1.25 

Fuller's  Practical  Forestey. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Propagation,  Planting  and  Cultivation,  with  a 
description  and  the  botanical  and  proper  names  of  all  the  indigen- 
ous trees  of  the  United  States,  both  Evergreen  and  Deciduous,  with 
Notes  on  a  large  number  of  the  most  valuable  Exotic  Species.  By 
Andrew  S.  Fullei',  author  of  "Grape  Culturist,"  "Small  Fruit  Cul- 
turist," etc.  1.50 

Stewart's  Irri§:ation  for  the  Farm,  Garden  and  Orchard. 

This  work  is  offered  to  those  American  Farmers  and  other  cultiva- 
tors of  the  soil  who,  from  painful  experience,  can  readily  appre- 
ciate the  losses  which  result  from  the  scarcity  of  water  at  critical 
periods.    By  Henry  Stewart.    Fully  illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.      1.58 

Quinn's  Money  in  the  Garden. 

By  P.  T.  Quinn.  The  author  gives  in  a  plain,  practical  style,  in- 
structions on  three  distinct,  althougli  closely  connected  branches 
of  gardening — the  kitchen  garden,  market  garden,  and  field  culture, 
from  successful  practical  experience  for  a  term  of  years.  Illustra- 
ted.   Cloth,  12mo.  1.60 


STANDARD  BOOKS.  7 

Roe's  Play  and  Profit  in  My  Garden. 

By  E.  r.  Roe.  The  author  takes  us  to  his  garden  on  the  rocky  hill- 
sides  in  tlie  vicinity  of  West  Point,  and  shows  us  how  out  of  it, 
after  four  years'  experience,  lie  evolced  a  profit  of  $1,000,  and  tliis 
wliile  carrying  on  pastoral  and  literary  labor.  It  is  very  rarely 
that  so  much  literary  taste  and  skill  are  mated  to  so  much  agri- 
cultural experience  and  good  sense.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

The  New  Onion  Culture. 

By  T.  Greiner.  This  new  work  is  written  by  one  of  our  most  suc- 
cessful agriculturists,  and  is  full  of  new,  original,  and  highly  valu- 
able matter  of  material  interest  to  every  one  who  raises  onions  in 
the  family  garden,  or  by  the  acre  for  market.  By  the  process  here 
described  a  crop  of  2000  bushels  per  acre  can  be  as  easily  raised  as 
500  or  GOO  bushels  in  the  old  way.    Paper,  12mo.  ,50 

The  Dairyman's  Manual. 

By  Henry  Stewart,  author  of  "The  Shepherd's  Manual,"  "Irriga- 
tion," etc.  A  useful  and  practical  work,  by  a  writer  who  is  well 
known  as  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  subject  of  which  he  writes. 
Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 

Allen's  American  Cattle. 

Their  History,  Breeding  and  Management.  By  Lewis  F.  Allen. 
Tliis  book  will  be  considered  indispensable  by  every  breeder  of 
live  stock.  The  large  experience  of  the  author  in  improving  the 
character  of  American  herds  adds  to  the  weiglit  of  his  observations 
and  has  enabled  him  to  produce  a  work  which  will  at  once  make 
good  his  claims  as  a  standard  authority  on  the  subject.  New  and 
revised  edition.    Illustrated,    Cloth,  12mo.  2.50 

Profits  in  Poultry. 

Useful  and  ornamental  Breeds  and  their  Profitable  Management. 
This  excellent  work  contains  the  combined  experience  of  a  num- 
ber of  practical  men  in  all  departments  of  poultry  raising.  It  is 
profusely  illustrated  and  forms  a  unique  and  important  addition 
to  our  poultry  literature.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.00 

The  American  Standard  of  Perfection. 

The  recognized  standard  work  on  Poultry  in  this  country,  adopted 
by  the  American  Poultry  Association.  It  contains  a  complete  de- 
scription of  all  the  recognized  varieties  of  fowls,  including  turkeys, 
ducks  and  geese ;  gives  instructions  to  judges ;  glossary  of  technical 
terms  and  nomenclature.  It  contains  244  pages,  handsomely 
bound  in  cloth,  embellished  with  title  in  gold  on  front  cover.    $1.00 

Stoddard's  An  Egg  Farm. 

By  H.  H.  Stoddard.  The  management  of  poultry  in  large  numbers, 
being  a  series  of  articles  written  for  the  AMEBICAN  AGRICUIiTUK- 
I8T.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12iuo.  JSH 


8  STANDAED  BOOKS. 

Stewart*s  Snepherd's  Manual. 

A  Valuable  Praclical  Treatise  on  the  Sheep  for  American  rarmer* 
and  sheep  growers.  It  is  so  i)lain  that  a  farmer  or  a  fanner's  son 
wlio  has  never  kept  a  sheep,  may  learn  from  its  j)ages  how  to 
maiiage  a  flock  successfully,  and  yet  so  complete  that  even  the  ex- 
perienced shepherd  may  gather  many  suggestions  from  it.  Tlie 
results  of  pcrson.'il  experience  of  some  years  with  the  characters 
of  tlie  variuus  modern  breeds  of  sheep,  and  the  sheep  raising  capa- 
bilities of  many  portions  of.  our  extensive  territory  and  that  of 
Canada— and  the  careful  study  of  the  diseases  to  which  our  sheep 
are  chiefly  subject,  with  those  by  which  they  may  eventually  be 
afflicted  througli  unforseen  accidents— as  well  as  the  methods  of 
management  called  for  under  our  circumstances,  are  carefully 
described.    By  Henry  Stewart.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Wrig:ht*s  Practical  Poultry-Keeper. 

By  L.  Wright.  A  complete  and  standard  guide  to  the  management 
of  poultry,  for  domestic  use,  tlie  markets  or  exhibition.  It  suits  at 
once  the  plain  poulterer,  who  must  make  the  business  pay,  and  the 
chicken  fancier  whose  taste  is  for  gay  plumage  and  strange,  bright 
birds.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  $2.00 

Harris  on  the  Pi§:. 

New  Edition.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  the  author.  The  points  of 
the  various  English  and  American  breeds  are  thoroughly  discussed, 
and  the  great  advantage  of  using  thoroughbred  males  clearly 
shown.  The  work  is  equally  valuable  to  the  farmer  who  keeps  but 
lew  pigs,  and  to  the  breeder  on  an  extensive  scale.  By  Joseph 
Harris.    Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

The  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser. 

A  guide  to  the  Brevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  •This  is  one  of  the  best  works  on  this  subject,  and  is  es- 
pecially designed  to  sujiply  the  need  of  the  busy  American  Farm- 
er, who  can  rarely  avail  himself  of  the  advice  of  a  Scientific  Veter- 
inarian. It  is  brought  up  to  date  and  treats  of  the  Prevention  of 
Disease  as  well  as  of  the  Remedies.  By  Prof.  Jas.  Law.  Cloth. 
Crown,  8vo.  3.00 

Dadd's  American  Cattle  Doctor. 

By  George  H.  Dadd,  M.  D.,  Veterinary  Practitioner.  To  help  every 
man  to  be  his  own  cattle-doctor;  giving  the  necessary  information 
for  preserving  the  health  and  curing  the  diseases  of  oxen,  cows, 
sheep  and  swine,  with  a  great  variety  of  original  recipes,  and  val- 
uable information  on  farm  and  dairy  management.  Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Cattle  Breeding:. 

By  "Wm.  Warfield.  This  work  is  by  common  consent  the  most 
valuable  and  pre-eminently  practical  treatise  on  cattle-breeding 
ever  published  in  America,  being  the  actual  experience  and  ob- 
servance of  a  practical  man.    Cloth,  12iuo.  2.09 


8TANDAKD  BOOKS.  9 

Dadd's  American  Cattle  Doctor. 

A  complete  work  on  all  the  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine,  in- 
cluding every  Disease  peculiar  to  America,  and  embracing  all  the 
latest  information  on  the  Cattle  Plague  and  Trichina;  containing 
also  a  guide  to  symptoms,  a  table  of  Weights  and  Measures,  and  a 
list  of  Valuable  Medicines.  By  George  H.  Dadd,  V.  S.,  twenty-five 
years  a  leading  Veterinary  Surgeon  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  and  author  of  the  "American  Reformed  Horse  Book."  Cloth, 
octavo.    Illustrated.  2.50 

Cattle  and  Their  Diseases. 

By  A.  J.  Murray,  M.  R.  C.  V.  S.  Breeding  and  Management  of  Cat- 
tle. This  is  one  of  the  very  few  works  devoted  exclusively  to 
cattle  diseases,  and  will  be  particularly  valuable  to  cattlemen 
for  that  reason.  It  is  written  in  plain,  simple  language,  easily  un- 
derstood by  any  farmer,  while  it  is  learned  and  technical  enough 
to  satisfy  any  veterinary  surgeon.    Cloth,  12mo.  2.00 


Silos,  Ensila§:e,  and  Sila§:e. 


A  practical  Treatise  on  the  Ensilage  of  Fodder  Corn,  containing 
the  most  recent  and  authentic  information  on  this  important  sub- 
ject, by  Manly  Miles,  M.  D,  F.  R.  ]M.  S.  Illustrated.    Cloth,  12mo.  .50 

Manures. 

How  to  Make  and  How  to  Use  them.  By  Frank  "W.  Sempers.  The 
author  has  made  a  concise,  practical  handbook  containing  the  lat- 
est researches  in  agriculture  in  all  i^arts  of  the  world.  Tlie  reports 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  have  furnished  many  val- 
uable suggestions.  Both  commercial  and  home-made  manures 
are  fully  described,  and  many  formulas  for  special  crops  and  soils 
are  given.    Price  postpaid,  i^aper  50  cents,  cloth.  1.00 

Potato  Pests. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  be  without  this  little  book.  It  gives  the 
most  complete  account  of  the  Colorado  Beetle  anywhere  to  be 
found,  and  includes  all  the  latest  discoveries  as  to  the  habits  of  the 
insect  and  the  various  means  for  its  destruction.  It  is  well  illustra- 
ted, and  exhibits  in  a  map  the  spread  of  the  insect  since  it  left  its 
native  home.    By  Prof.  C.  V.  Riley.    Paper.  .50 

Your  Plants. 

Plain  and  Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment  of  Tender  and 
Hardy  Plants  in  the  House  and  in  the  Garden.  By  James  Sheehan. 
The  work  meets  the  wants  of  the  amateur  who  grows  a  few  plants 
in  the  window,  or  has  a  small  flower  garden.    Paper  covers.  .40 

Pedder's  Land-Measurer  for  Farmers. 

A  convenient  Pocket  Companion,  showing  at  once  the  contents  of 
any  piece  of  land,  vrhen  its  length  and  Avidth  are  unknown,  up  to 
1500  feet  either  way,  with  various  other  useful  farm  tables.  Cloth, 
18mo.  .60 


10  STA.NDAED  BOOKS. 

Hop  Culture. 

Plain  directions  given  by  ten  experienced  cultivators.  Revisscl, 
eularj^ed  and  edited  by  A.  S.  Fuller.    Forty  engravings.  .30 

Wheat  Culture. 

How  to  double  the  yield  and  increase  the  profits.  By  D.  S.  Curtiss, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Importance  of  the  Wheat  Crop.  Varieties  Most 
Grown  in  the  United  States.  Examples  of  Successful  Wheat  Cul- 
ture.   Illustrated.    Paper  covers.  .50 

Starr's  Farm  Echoes. 

By  F.  Rateliford  Starr,  Echo  Farm,  Litchf.eld,  Ct.     This  handsome 
little  book  tells  how  the  author  turned  from  a  successful  business 
career  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  has  achieved  health,  happiness 
and  prosperity  upon  his  broad  acres  near  Litchfield.    Cloth,  12mo. 
Illustrated.  .50 

The  American  Merino.    For  Wool  or  for  Mutton. 

A  practical  and  most  valuable  work  on  the  selection, care, breeding 
and  diseases  of  the  Merino  slieep,  in  all  sections  of  tlie  United 
States.  It  is  a  full  and  exhaustive  treatise  upon  this  one  breed  of 
sheep.    By  Stephen  Powers.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.50 

Coburn's  Swine  Husbandry. 

New,  revised  and  enlarged  edition.  The  Breeding,  Rearing,  and 
Management  of  Swine,  and  the  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  their 
Diseases.  It  is  the  fullest  and  freshest  compendium  relating  to 
Swine  Breeding  yet  offered.    By  F.  D,  Coburn,    Cloth,  12mo.         1.75 

Tobacco  Culture:  Full  Practical  Details. 

Tliis  useful  and  valuable  work  contains  fulldetailsof  every  process 
from  the  Selection  and  Propagation  of  the  Seed  and  Soil  to  the 
Harvesting,  Curing  and  Marketing  the  Crop,  with  illustrative  en- 
gravings of  the  operations.  The  work  was  prepared  by  Fourteen 
Experienced  Tobacco  Growers,  residing  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  It  also  contains  notes  on  the  Tobacco  Worm,  with  Ulus- 
trations.    8vo.  .25 

Keeping:  One  Cow. 

A  collection  of  prize  Essays  and  Selections  from  a  number  of  other 
Essays,  with  editorial  notes,  suggestions,  etc.  This  book  gives  the 
latest  information,  and  in  a  clear  and  condensed  form,  upon  the 
management  of  a  single  Milch  Cow.  Illustrated  with  full  page  en- 
gravings of  the  most  famous  dairy  cows.    Cloth,  12mo.  1.00 

Guenon*s  Treatise  on  Milch  Cows. 

A  treatise  on  the  Bovine  Species  in  General.  An  entirely  new 
translation  of  the  last  edition  of  this  popular  and  instructive  book. 
By  Thomas  J.  Hand,  Secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Chib. 
With  over  100  illustration*,  especially  engraved  for  this  work. 
Cloth,  12IUO.  I'OO 


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